II: The Rare Appearance of a Buddha

Living When a Buddha Appears

The wealthy Anāthapiṇḍika, ^{[See chapter 45a.2 below for his life story].} who was to become the supporter of the Jetavana monastery, was on his visit to Rājagaha when he saw the Buddha for the first time, having heard the word Buddha from his wealthy brother-in-law ^{They were related as each had married the other’s sister.} in Rājagaha. As soon as he heard the sound Buddha, he exclaimed: “Friend, rare indeed it is in the world even to hear the utterance: Buddha, Buddha (ghoso pi kho eso gahapati dullabho lokasmiṁ, yad-idaṁ, buddho buddho ti).” ^{[See the Vinaya Short Division (Cūḷa-vagga) 6, PTS 2.155].} Also while the Buddha was staying in the market town of Āpaṇa, in the country of Aṅguttarāpa, Sela, a leading Brahmin teacher, heard from Keṇiya, the matted-hair ascetic, the word Buddha. As soon as he heard the sound Buddha, it occurred to him thus: “Rare indeed it is in the world even to hear the utterance: Buddha, Buddha (ghoso pi kho eso dullabho lokasmiṁ, yad-idaṁ, buddho buddho ti).”

He visited his friend Keṇiya, who was then preparing to shower his lavish hospitality on the Buddha and his Saṅgha, an incident similar to that of Anāthapiṇḍika. Both were filled with joy on hearing such a great name as Buddha. See the Discourse concerning Sela (Sela-sutta, MN 92).

Not long after, together with 300 followers, he gained the “Come bhikkhu” (ehi-bhikkhu) ordination, and seven days thence, he became an Arahat together with his followers.

In the light of these canonical extracts it can be seen it is very rare and difficult in the world even to hear the word Buddha; inexpressibly and extremely more so indeed is the actual appearance of a Buddha.

In this respect, it may be noted that the utterance ‘diamond’ may refer to a genuine diamond or a fake. Likewise, because rumours of a coming Buddha had been widespread prior to the Buddha’s appearance, both Anāthapiṇḍika and Sela must have heard before of the false claim of the six teachers to be Buddhas.

But just as the sound of the word ‘diamond’, only when spoken of a genuine one, would please one who can differentiate between a genuine diamond and a fake one; so also, to such men of highly developed intelligence as Anāthapiṇḍika and Sela, the utterance Buddha could have been delightful only when spoken of the true Buddha.

Just as taking a fake diamond to be genuine by unworthy persons of poor intelligence is a wrong notion, even so taking their masters, the six heretical teachers, to be genuine Buddhas by those who followed them was a wrong and harmful conclusion [10] (micchādhimokkha).

In order to appreciate more profoundly the rare phenomenon of a Buddha’s appearance in the world, it is important to know briefly at the beginning the following matters concerning a Bodhisatta and a Buddha:

1. Bodhisatta

The fourfold insight knowledge of the path (magga-ñāṇa) with or without accompaniment of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa) is called Awakening (Bodhi).

Awakening is of three kinds:

1. Noble persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise Perfect Awakening (Sammā-sambodhi) are called Perfect Bodhisattas (Sammā-sambodhisattas).

2. Noble persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise Independent Awakening (Pacceka-bodhi) are called Independent Bodhisattas (Pacceka-bodhisatta).

3. Noble persons who have a strong wholesome desire to realise the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi) are called future disciple Bodhisattas (sāvaka-bodhisatta).

Three Types of Bodhisattas

Of these three kinds of noble persons, 1) Perfect Bodhisattas (Sammā-Sambodhisatta) are grouped into three types:

Becoming a Buddha is attainment of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa). To attain this supreme wisdom, the seeker must have a mentality in which wisdom is predominant. The factor of predominant wisdom means careful consideration and forethought in doing everything: physically, verbally or mentally. By so doing, one’s wisdom becomes strengthened and mature, existence after existence, so that in due course one painlessly attains omniscience which is far superior to all kinds of wisdom. Just as money is gained in the world by means of monetary investment, even so omniscience is gained by means of intellectual investment.

1. Bodhisattas with the factor of predominant wisdom (paññādhika) always become Buddhas after fulfilling their perfections (pāramī) for four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyyas) and 100,000 aeons.

2. Other Bodhisattas also believe that they can become Buddhas by fulfilling the perfections, and in their mentality faith is predominant. With them, faith plays a greater role than wisdom. They are therefore called Bodhisattas with predominant faith (saddhādhika). Since they are not led by wisdom but by faith in their fulfilment of the perfections, they cannot become Buddhas after four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, but only after eight immeasurables and 100,000 aeons.

3. There are still other Bodhisattas who rely solely upon their energy. For them, wisdom is not a principal factor. Neither do they place emphasis on the faith that the perfections lead to Awakening. Holding that energy brings about Buddhahood, they give top priority to energy in their fulfilment of the perfections and become Buddhas only after sixteen immeasurables and 100,000 aeons. They are therefore called Bodhisattas with predominant energy (viriyādhika).

Thus it should be noted that the three designations viz., those with predominant wisdom (paññādhika), predominant faith (saddhādhika) and predominant energy (viriyādhika), are applied only to Bodhisattas. Otherwise, one would think that they belonged to Fully Awakened Buddhas. These distinctions exist only while they remain as Bodhisattas, but once they attain Buddhahood, they are all identical in respect of wisdom, faith and energy. One cannot say which Buddha is more accomplished than the other in each of these aspects.

Paññādhikānaṁ hi saddhā mandā hoti, paññā tikkhā; saddhādhikānaṁ paññā majjhimā hoti, saddhā balavā; viriyādhikānaṁ saddhā-paññā mandā, viriyaṁ balavam. ^{See the commentary on the first verse of the Discourse about the Rhinoceros (Khagga-visāṇa-sutta) of the Anthology of Discourses (Sutta-nipāta, PTS 1.47).}

In Bodhisattas with predominant wisdom, wisdom is strong but faith is weak; in Bodhisattas with predominant faith, wisdom is medial but faith is strong; in Bodhisattas with predominant energy, faith and wisdom are weak, but energy is strong.

Differences between the Three Types of Bodhisattas

Bodhisattas are of three types with three respective periods of [12] fulfilment of the perfections, namely, four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, eight immeasurables and 100,000 aeons and sixteen immeasurables and 100,000 aeons. The reason for this difference is mentioned in the Poem on the Perfections (Pāramidawgan Pyo) ^{Dated A.D. 1491, and composed when the poet was 38, according to the Introduction, the Poem on the Perfections (Pāramīdawgan Pyo), Rangoon 1953. It is the best known work and masterpiece of the poet. See the Preface.} an epic composed by the celebrated poet of Old Burma, Ashin Sīlavaṁsa, who was a monastic poet and literary genius (1453-1520), born in a village near Taungdwingyi, who made his name in the city of Ava. According to that text, the difference lies in the path chosen by the individual Bodhisatta; a Bodhisatta with predominant wisdom chooses the wisdom path which takes four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons to reach the goal; a Bodhisatta with predominant faith chooses the faith path which takes eight immeasurables and 100,000 aeons to reach the goal; and a Bodhisatta with predominant energy chooses the energy path which takes sixteen immeasurables and 100,000 aeons to reach the goal.

According to the view of other teachers, as mentioned in the Miscellany (Pakiṇṇaka-kathā) of the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka) commentary, the difference between the three durations lies in the three degrees of energy: strong, medial and weak.

The view, which appeals to the commentator Ven. Dhammapāla and others, is that the difference in duration is due to the difference in the degrees: strong, medial and weak, of the maturity of the perfections leading to emancipation (vimutti-paripācanīyā). To elaborate: even at the time of receiving the prophecy, Bodhisattas are of three types:

1. Bodhisattas who quickly grasp the teaching (ugghaṭitaññū-bodhisatta) are those who have the capacity to become Arahats together with the six super knowledges (abhiññā) and four kinds of analytical knowledges (paṭisambhidā). They can attain that stage even before the end of the third line of a verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi) in that very existence. This is one of the eight factors for receiving the prophecy.

2. Bodhisattas who grasp the teaching after a detailed explanation (vipañcitaññū-bodhisatta) are those who have the capacity to become an Arahat together with the six super knowledges and four kinds of analytical knowledge. They can attain that stage before the end of the fourth line of a verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi) in that very existence. [13]

3. Bodhisattas who need to be led (neyya-bodhisatta) are those who have the capacity to become an Arahat together with the six super knowledges and four kinds of analytical knowledge. They can attain that stage at the end of the whole verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi) in that very existence.

With Bodhisattas who quickly grasp the teaching (ugghaṭitaññū-bodhisatta), the degree of maturity of the perfections leading to emancipation is so strong that they have to endeavour only for four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons after receiving the prophecy.

With Bodhisattas who grasp the teaching after a detailed explanation (vipañcitaññū-bodhisatta), the degree of maturity of the perfections leading to emancipation is medial and they have to endeavour for eight immeasurables and 100,000 aeons after receiving the prophecy.

With Bodhisattas who need to be led (neyya-bodhisatta), the degree of maturity of the perfections leading to emancipation is so weak that they have to endeavour for sixteen immeasurables and 100,000 aeons after receiving the prophecy.

Bodhisattas who quickly grasp the teaching are identical with Bodhisattas with predominant wisdom; so are Bodhisattas who grasp the teaching after a detailed explanation with Bodhisattas with predominant faith and Bodhisattas who need to be led with Bodhisattas with predominant energy.

The rice paddy species that ripens only when it is three, four or five months old by no means yields crops in fifteen days or a month although watering and weeding may have been done many times a day; its stems and leaves cannot grow as much as one would like and its ears cannot start bearing seeds, thrive and mature. In the same way, it should be noted that the three types of Bodhisattas by no means attain full Buddhahood with its perfectly ripe fruit of omniscience before they have completed the full course of the perfections that lasts 100,000 aeons in addition to four, eight or sixteen immeasurables even if, since receiving the prophecy, they have given daily alms like those of Prince Vessantara and have observed pertinent virtues such as morality, etc.

2. The Duties of a Bodhisatta

Mere desire to possess wealth and not working for it leads nowhere. Only when one works hard enough can one hope to gain the desired object. In the same way, the three types of Bodhisattas, who wish to attain the above mentioned three respective types of Awakening, attain them only when they have fulfilled their perfections (pāramī), sacrificed their lives and limbs in charity (cāga) and developed their virtues through good conduct (cariyā) as a means of achieving the Awakening which they so desire.

In a business enterprise, the extent of profit gained is determined by the capital invested and the effort put in. When the capital is large and the effort great, the profit is considerable; when the capital and effort are fair, the accruing profit is just fair; when the capital and effort are little, the profit gained is little. In the same way, there exist distinctions between Awakening attained by those who make investment in the form of a fulfilment of the perfections, abandoning of life and limb in charity and development of virtues: [14] the practices which are conducive to the maturity of Awakening (Bodhi-paripācaka). The profits gained in the form of Awakening differ inasmuch as there are differences in their investment of the perfections, charity and virtues through practice. The differences may be explained as follows:

1. Perfect Bodhisattas (Sammā-Sambodhisatta) who even before the definite prophecy accumulate merits and make the mental resolution to become a Buddha. The definite prophecy is made by a Buddha saying: “This person will become a Buddha under a certain name in a certain world,” like Buddha Dīpaṅkara who predicted Sumedha would become Gotama Buddha, as mentioned in the passage (Ap 1.4, PTS 1.1):

Aham-pi pubba-Buddhesu, Buddhattam-abhipatthayiṁ,
manasā yeva hutvāna Dhamma-rajā asaṅkhiyā.

I also amongst the previous Buddhas, aspired for becoming a Buddha, having made with my mind innumerable kings of the Dhamma.

In the Traditions about the Buddha (Buddhāpadāna), a Bodhisatta aspires mentally to Buddhahood in the presence of innumerable Buddhas throughout immeasurable aeons.

After thus making the mental resolution for becoming a Buddha and accumulating special merits for an inestimable period of time, when he becomes endowed with the eight factors, like the recluse Sumedha, a Bodhisatta receives the definite prophecy from a living Buddha.

Here it should be noted that the act of resolution by an aspirant to become a Buddha (abhinīhāra) ^{The literal meaning of the word given by the author is directing one’s mind towards his becoming a Buddha.} is made up of two phases; as aspiration to Awakening prior to his possession of the eight factors is mainly mental, his act of resolution made before Buddhas, one after another, is not complete, and he is not yet entitled to the designation of Bodhisatta. But when he becomes endowed with eight factors like Sumedha and, on that very account, he now makes the resolution saying (Bv 2.57):

Iminā me adhikārena katena purisuttame,
sabbaññutaṁ pāpuṇitvā, tāremi janataṁ bahuṁ.

As the fruit of this great meritorious deed done by me for the sake of this omniscient Buddha Dīpaṅkarā without regard even for my life, may I, having myself attained omniscient Buddhahood, be able to save multitudes of beings.

His act of resolution becomes complete then and there, and it enabled him to be worthy of receiving the definite prophecy, and being designated a Bodhisatta.

It should be noted that this complete act of resolution (abhinīhāra) is the great wholesome consciousness intention or volition (mahā-kusala-cittuppāda) that arises as a result of his reflection on the unimaginable attributes of a Buddha and his great compassion for the welfare of the entire world of beings. And this great wholesome consciousness has the unique power of motivating his fulfilment of the perfections, abandoning of life and limb in generosity and development of virtues through practice.

The moment that great wholesome consciousness arises in the Bodhisatta, he sets himself on the path leading to omniscience. Because he is definitely on his way to Buddhahood, he now wins the title, Bodhisatta. Owing to the complete resolution which, as has been explained above, is the great wholesome consciousness, there becomes [15] established in him the wholesome aspiration for full omniscience and the unrivalled ability to fulfil the perfections, to abandoning of life and limb in generosity and to develop virtues which form the requisites for the attainment of omniscience.

And also, because of the aforesaid great wholesome consciousness, he reflects on the perfections to be accomplished and determines the order for doing so. He does it by means of the knowledge of investigation of the perfections (pāramī-pavicaya-ñāṇa) which enables him to penetrate things without a teacher’s help. This knowledge is a precursor to the attainment of omniscience; it is followed by the actual fulfilment of the perfections one after another.

As mentioned in the Introduction (Nidāna-kathā) of the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka) commentary (see PTS 18), after receiving the definite prophecy of Buddhahood, the Bodhisatta ceaselessly and uniquely strives to fulfil the perfections (pāramī), charity (cāga) and good conduct (cariyā) which are requisites for achieving the path-knowledge of Arahantship (Arahatta-magga-ñāṇa) and omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa) by four means of development.

Of these four, these things are necessary:

Moral Qualities of a Bodhisatta

The Bodhisatta, who has received the definite prophecy, is strongly moved by great compassion for beings when he sees these helpless ones who have no refuge in this difficult journey of life, who are beset with a variety of intolerably acute sufferings such as those springing from birth, old age, sickness and death; of killings, imprisonment, of being maimed and disabled; of hardships associated with earning a living and the sufferings of suffering states. Being so moved by this great compassion, he forbears his own suffering from such outrageous oppressive atrocities as cutting off of the hand, the leg, the ear, etc., perpetrated against him by those totally blind and ignorant people, and his compassion for them is long and enduring.

He suffuses them with compassion in this manner: “How shall I treat these people who have wronged me? I am, of truth, a person who is striving for the perfections with a view to liberating them from the woes of the cycle of births. Powerful indeed is delusion! Forceful indeed is craving! Sad it is that, being overwhelmed by craving and delusion, they have committed such great offences even against me, who endeavours to liberate them thus. [16] Because they have perpetrated these outrages, serious troubles lie in wait for them.”

Shedding his compassion on them, he tries to find suitable ways and means to save them and reflects: “Being overwhelmed by craving and delusion, they have wrongly taken what is impermanent to be permanent, suffering to be happiness, non-self to be self and unpleasantness to be pleasantness. In what way shall I go to their rescue and bring them out of suffering that arises owing to a cause?”

While contemplating thus, the Bodhisatta rightly discerns that forbearance (khanti) is the only means to set beings free from the bondage of existence. He does not show even the slightest anger to beings who have outraged him by cutting off his limbs, etc. He thinks to himself: “As the result of demeritorious deeds done in my past existences, I deserve this suffering now. Since I, myself, have done wrong previously, I deserve this suffering. I am the one who has started the wrongdoing.” Thus, he takes the offence of others upon himself.

It further occurs to him thus: “Only with forbearance will I be able to save them. If I do wrong to the wrongdoer, I will become like him, I will not be different from him. How then can I liberate them from the woes of the cycle of births? I can never do so.

Therefore, resting on the strength of forbearance, which is the basis of all strengths, and taking their misdeeds upon myself, I will forbear; and with loving-kindness and compassion as guides, I will fulfil the perfections. Only by so doing will I attain omniscient Buddhahood. Only by having attained omniscient Buddhahood will I be able to save all beings from suffering that arises owing to a cause.” He thus sees the situation correctly, as it is.

Having observed in this way, the Bodhisatta fulfils his perfections in a unique manner: The perfections being ten ordinary ones, ten superior ones and ten most superior ones, 30 in all, are known as the requisites of Awakening (Bodhi-sambhāra). The fulfilment of the perfections takes place in the above-mentioned four ways of development.

Before he attains the complete fulfilment of the perfections, as in the existence of Vessantara (Ja 547), while still fulfilling the perfections, sacrificing life and limb in generosity and developing practices in a unique manner, a Bodhisatta may be reborn frequently as a divine being of long life in consequence of his great meritorious deeds. But he chooses to cut short his long life in that divine world by means of intentional death (adhimutti-maraṇa) ^{See the Further Explanations.} because it is difficult to fulfil the perfections in those celestial abodes. Accordingly, he is reborn in many a world of human beings where he can continue to fulfil the perfections.

However enormous an ocean may be, it is finite in its extent, being limited by its bed at the bottom, its surface at the top and encircled by the Cakkavāḷa mountains on all sides. On the other hand, the ocean of perfection in alms giving (dāna-pāramī), fulfilled and accumulated by the Bodhisatta, is infinite in its extent; its dimensions are limitless. With regard to this particular perfection of alms giving, one cannot define its limits by the extent of external properties given away, the amount of flesh or blood given away or by the number of eyes or heads sacrificed. Likewise, one cannot speak of the limits of the other perfections such as that of morality (sīla-pāramī). Thus, in this comparison of the ocean with the ocean of the perfections, it should be noted that the former is limited in capacity, however vast it may be, whereas, the latter is of infinite magnitude. [17]

At noon, during the hot season, a man may go into a deep lake and take a bath, submerging himself; and while he is doing so, he does not take note of the intense heat that descends from the sky. In the same way, the Bodhisatta who suffused himself with great compassion, while seeking the welfare of beings, goes down into the ocean of the perfections and submerges himself there. Since he is suffused with great compassion, he does not feel even intense pains which are inflicted by evil, cruel persons, and which are caused by the cutting off his limbs, etc., as suffering.

The Long Duration Needed

A Bodhisatta has to fulfil the perfections for at least four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyya) and 100,000 aeons from the time of his receiving the prophecy to the last existence when he achieves the completion of his fulfilment of the perfections, as in the existence of Vessantara.

According to the Thematic Discourses on the Inconceivable Beginning (Anamatagga-saṁyutta, SN 15), an aeon is a period of time during which, if the bones of beings were piled up, the size of that pile would become as high as a mountain. Therefore, the number of births taken by the Bodhisatta, during the long period of four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, would be greater than the number of drops of water in a great ocean. Among these existences, there is none who has not witnessed the fulfilment of the perfections and none who has passed in vain.

The accounts of the fulfilment of the perfections by the Bodhisatta, as mentioned in the 547 Birth Stories (Jātaka) and in the 35 stories of the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka), are just a few examples out of the total experiences which he had during the long period of four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons. It is like a bowl of sea-water taken out of a great ocean in order to sample its salty taste. The Buddha told these stories as illustrations, as occasions arose and under appropriate circumstances. The number of stories he told and the number of stories he did not tell, may be compared to the water in a bowl and the water in a great ocean respectively.

The perfection of alms giving fulfilled by the Buddha is sung in praise in the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra) as follows (Jināl 31):

So sāgare jaladhikaṁ ruhiraṁ adāsi,
bhūmāparājiya samaṁsam-adāsi dānaṁ,
Meruppamāṇam-adhikañ-ca samoḷi-sīsaṁ,
khe tārakādhika-taraṁ nayanaṁ adāsi.

Aiming at infinite wisdom, and full of faith and fervour, that Bodhisatta gave in generosity, his ruby-red blood in quantities much more than drops of water in the four oceans; aiming at infinite wisdom and full of faith and fervour, he gave in generosity, his naturally soft and tender flesh in quantities which would exceed the great earth that is 240,000 leagues in extent; aiming at infinite wisdom and full of faith and fervour, his heads, with glittering crowns studded with nine gems, he gave in generosity, would pile up higher than Mount Meru; aiming at infinite wisdom and full of faith and fervour, he gave in generosity, his wondrous smiling eyes, dark as corundum or of a beetle’s wing, more times than the stars and planets in the space of the universe.

2. Independent Bodhisattas (Pacceka-bodhisatta), have to fulfil their perfections for two immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons. They cannot become Independent Buddhas if their duration of fulfilment of the perfections is less than that number of aeons. Because, as has been said in the chapter dealing with previous Bodhisattas, the Awakening of an Independent [18] Buddha (Pacceka-bodhi) cannot become mature before they have completed the full course of the perfections.

3. There are three categories of disciple Bodhisattas (sāvaka-bodhisatta):

Of these three categories: 1) Future chief disciples have to fulfil their perfections for one immeasurable period and 100,000 aeons; 2) future great disciples for 100,000 aeons; and 3) future ordinary disciples, the duration of their fulfilment of the perfections is not directly stated in the texts. However, it is said in the commentary and sub-commentary on the Discussion of Previous Lives (Pubbe-nivāsa-kathā), on the Long Discourse on the Traditions (Mahāpadāna-sutta, DN 14) ^{The discourse deals elaborately with the life of Buddha Vipassī, the first of the seven Buddhas preceding Buddha Gotama. Because it contains the largest number of bhaṇavāras or sections, it came to be known as the king of discourses in the commentaries.} that great disciples can remember their past lives of 100,000 aeons ago and ordinary disciples, of less than that figure. Since fulfilment of the perfections takes place in every existence of theirs, it may be inferred that future ordinary disciples have to fulfil the perfections not more than 100,000 aeons. The duration of their fulfilment of the perfections is thus indefinite: it may be 100 aeons or 1,000 aeons, etc. According to some, it may be just one or two existences as illustrated by the story of a frog.

3. Buddha

As has been said before, after fulfilling their perfections for their respective durations, the three types of Bodhisattas (those with predominant wisdom, faith or energy) attain the fourfold path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa), which is understanding of the four noble truths by himself without a teacher’s help, as well as omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa), which is understanding of all principles that are worthy of understanding.

They acquire, at the same time, the special attributes of a Buddha which are infinite (ananta) and an immeasurable period (aparimeyya). Such attributes are so immense that if a Buddha extols the attributes of another Buddha without touching on any other topic for an aeon, the aeon may come to an end, but the talk about the attributes will not. The noble person, who has thus attained Awakening with no equal in the three worlds, is called an omniscient Buddha or a Perfectly Self-Awakened One (Sammā-sambuddha).

After fulfilling the necessary perfections for two immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, an Independent Buddha attains Awakening consisting of the insight knowledge of the path which is the understanding of the four noble truths (magga-ñāṇa) by himself, without a teacher’s help. But he does not achieve omniscience and the ten powers (dasa-bala-ñāṇa), [19] etc. The noble person who has thus attained Awakening is called an Independent Buddha (Pacceka-buddha).

After fulfilling the necessary perfections for one immeasurable period and 100,000 aeons, if he is a future chief disciple, or 100,000 aeons, if he is a future great disciple, or 100 aeons or 1,000 aeons or any smaller number of aeons, if he is a future ordinary disciple, a future disciple attains Awakening consisting of the insight-knowledge of the path, which is understanding of the four noble truths (sāvaka-bodhi-ñāṇa), with the help of a teacher who is a Buddha. The noble person who has thus attained the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi-ñāṇa) is called an Awakened disciple (sāvaka-buddha); he may have the status of a chief disciple, a great disciple or an ordinary disciple.

4. The Duties of a Buddha

There are three types of Awakened Ones:

Among these great personages, namely, omniscient Buddhas, Independent Buddhas and Awakened disciples, omniscient Buddhas are called ones who makes other cross, and helps them through (tārayitu), the most supreme ones, who, having themselves crossed the ocean of Saṁsāra, ^{Saṁsāra, literally, moving about continuously from one life to another, i.e., the cycle of births.} save others from their perils.

Independent Buddhas are called those who have crossed over (tārita), the noble ones who have crossed over the ocean of Saṁsāra on their own, but are unable to save others from its perils. Independent Buddhas do not appear in an age when an omniscient Buddha makes his appearance. They appear only in the intervening period between the lifetimes of two Buddhas. An omniscient Buddha realises for himself the four noble truths without guidance and has the ability to teach and make others understand them.

An Independent Buddha also realises the four noble truths on his own, but he is in no way able to teach and make others understand them. Having realised (paṭivedha) ^{Paṭivedha, literally, penetration. It is one of the three aspects of the Buddha’s teaching, the first two being learning (pariyatti) and practice (paṭipatti).} the paths, fruitions and Nibbāna, he is unable to recount his personal experiences of these attainments because he lacks an appropriate terminology for these supermundane doctrines. Therefore, an Independent Buddha’s knowledge of the four truths (Dhammābhisamaya) ^{Dhammābhisamaya, literally, truth-realisation, which according to the commentaries means penetration of the four noble truths.} is compared by the commentators to a dumb person’s dream or an ignorant peasant’s experience of a city life for which he has no words to describe it. Independent Buddhas (tārita) are thus those who have gone across Saṁsāra on their own, but who are in no position to help others cross.

Independent Buddhas may bestow monkhood on those who wish to become monks, and they may give them training in special practices of the holy life (ābhisamācārika) ^{Ābhisamācārika, “belonging to the practice of the lesser ethics,” according to PED; “the minor precepts,” according to CPD.} thus: “In this calm manner, you should step forward, step backward, you should see, you should say,” [20] and so on; but they are not able to teach them how to differentiate between mind and matter (nāma-rūpa), and how to view them in terms of their characteristics, namely, impermanence, suffering and non-self, etc. so that they may reach the stage of realisation of the paths and fruitions. ^{The next paragraph in the original text deals with the Observance Day services observed by Paccekabuddhas. This account is too technical for lay readers, and we have thus omitted it from our translation.}

Noble disciples who have been helped across the ocean of Saṁsāra and have been saved by omniscient Buddhas are called those who were helped across (tarita). To illustrate, Upatissa, the wandering ascetic, who was to become Ven. Sāriputta, became established in the path and fruition of Stream-entry (Sotāpatti) on hearing from Ven. Assaji the following verse (Mahā-khandhaka, Vin Mv 1, PTS 1.40):

Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā, tesaṁ hetuṁ Tathāgato āha,
tesañ-ca yo nirodho: evaṁ-vādī Mahā-samaṇo.

Whatever things have a cause and source, their cause the Realised One has told, and also that which is their cessation: such is the Great Ascetic’s doctrine.

From this account, one would think noble disciples could be both those who have been saved (tarita) by others and those who have saved others (tārayitu). But the teaching of a Buddha’s disciple has its origin in the Buddha; it does not originate from the disciple himself. He does not preach a discourse of his own without taking help and guidance from the teaching of the Buddha. Therefore, such disciples are to called those who have crossed over (tarita) and not those who help others to cross over (tārayitu), as they can, by no means, realise the four noble truths without a master; and their realisation of the paths and fruitions can take place only with the master’s help and guidance.

As has been said, Independent Buddhas are those who have crossed over (tārita) and noble disciples are those who were helped across (tarita) respectively. Hence, after their realisation of the path and fruition of an Arahat, they entered into the stage of attainment of fruition (phala-samāpatti) and attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti) for their own enjoyment of bliss of peace, and not working for the benefit of others.

On the other hand, an omniscient Buddha (Sammā-sambuddha) would not remain working for his own interest only. In fact, even at the time of fulfilling the perfections, he resolves: “Having understood the four noble truths, I will make others understand the same (Buddho bodheyyaṁ),” and so on. Accordingly, he performs the five duties of a Buddha continuously, day and night. ^{Here the author asks to see details of the five duties of a Buddha in the exposition on the attributes of Bhagavā in the Chronicle of Buddha Gotama in chapter 42a.}

Because he has to perform the five duties of a Buddha, the Buddha takes a short rest after his meal each day. At night, he rests only for one third of the last watch of the night. The remaining hours are spent attending to his five duties.

Only those Buddhas, who possess the energy in the form of unique and supreme diligence (payatta) which is one of the glories (bhaga) of a Buddha, are able to perform such duties. The performance of these duties is not the sphere of Independent Buddhas and disciples.

The Rare Appearance of a Buddha

A Buddha’s coming into being is a very rare phenomenon. [21] Numerous were those who aspired after Buddhahood when they had themselves seen or heard the powers and glories of Buddha Gotama after his Awakening such as victory over the heretics bloated with conceit, performance of the twin miracle, ^{It is a well known miracle displaying both fire and water issuing alternately from the Buddha’s body.} etc. Therefore, when the Buddha descended to the city of Saṅkassa from Tāvatiṁsa, where he had taught the Abhidhamma, humans, Devas and Brahmas became visible to one another owing to the Descent from the Devas (Devorohaṇa) miracle performed by the Buddha. The Descent from the Devas miracle created a great expanse of space from Bhavagga ^{The highest abode of Brahmas.} above to Avīci below and throughout the eight directions of the unbounded universe.

Beholding the Buddha’s splendour that day, there was none among the people, who had gathered in a great mass, who did not aspire to become Buddhas. That all the people of this huge gathering wished to become Buddhas is mentioned in the story of the Descent from the Devas in the commentary to the Dhamma Verses (Dhammapada, Dhp 181) and in the explanations of the three kinds of miracles in the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra).

Although the number of people aspiring after Buddhahood, on seeing and hearing the Buddha’s splendour, was great, it is certain that those who were of little faith, wisdom, will and energy would have flinched if they had known the pertinent facts concerning the multiplicity of the perfections such as fulfilment of these perfections on a mighty scale, fulfilment of the perfections in every existence without interruption, fulfilment with seriousness and thoroughness, fulfilment for a long time and fulfilment without regard to one’s life. Only undaunted fulfilment of these awesome perfections could lead to Awakening. Buddhahood is therefore said to be something hard to obtain (dullabha). The appearance of a Buddha is indeed a rare phenomenon.

Thus, it is mentioned in the Collection of the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara-nikāya, AN 1.71):

Eka-puggalassa bhikkhave pātu-bhāvo dullabho lokasmiṁ: katamassa eka-pugglassa? Tathāgatassa Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa imassa kho bhikkhave eka-puggalassa pātu-bhāvo dullabho lokasmiṁ.

Monks, in the world, emergence of one being is very rare. Whose emergence? The Realised One, the Worthy One, the Perfect Self-Awakened Buddha, who is worthy of the highest veneration and who knows the truth, his emergence is indeed very rare.

The commentary on that discourse, too, explains why the appearance of a Buddha is so rare. Of the ten perfections, with regard to alms giving alone, one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it just once; one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it twice, ten times, 20, 50, 100, 1,000, 100,000 times, or times numbering 10,000,000, 100 billion, 1,000 billion, or 100,000 billion.

Similarly, one cannot become a Buddha after fulfilling it for one day, two days, ten, 20, 50, 100, 1,000, 100,000 days or days numbering 100,000 billion; not after fulfilling it for one month, two months or months [22] numbering 100,000 billion; not after fulfilling it even for one year, two years, or years numbering 100,000 billion; not after fulfilling it even for a great aeon, two great aeons, or great aeons numbering 100,000 billion; fulfilling it even one great immeasurable period (asaṅkhyeyya) aeon, two great immeasurables or three great immeasurable aeons.

The same holds good in the case of the other perfections, such as morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, forbearance, truth, resolution, loving-kindness and equanimity.

In fact, the shortest duration for fulfilment of the perfections is four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons. It is only after fulfilling all the perfections for such a long time without interruption, and with profound reverence, devotion, seriousness and thoroughness that one can become Awakened. This is the reason for the rare occurrence of an omniscient Buddha.

The sub-commentary on the discourse also emphasises that only when one has fulfilled the perfections for at least four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons can one become a Buddha. There is no other way. This is why the appearance of a Buddha is singularly rare.

No Similes to Illustrate the Perfections

The Bodhisatta’s existences during the period of four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, between the life of the recluse Sumedha and that of Vessantara, were more than the drops of water in the great ocean. The number of the perfections that had been fulfilled without interruption of a single existence was so great that its sum total cannot be estimated. There is practically nothing to compare with these perfections. This is extolled in the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra, Jināl 28):

Mahā-samudde jala-binduto pi,
tad-antare jāti anappakā va,
nirantaraṁ purita-pāramīnaṁ,
kathaṁ pamāṇaṁ upamā kuhiṁ vā?

The births during the period between the life of Sumedha and that of Vessantara were more than the drops of water in the great ocean. Who can know the measure of the perfections fulfilled without interruption? Where is the simile to illustrate them with?

Besides, in the Discourse on the Provisions for a Journey (Pātheyya-sutta, SN 1.79) commentary and its sub-commentary and the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra), where virtues of 100 kinds of meritorious deeds (sata-puñña-lakkhaṇa) are dealt with, it states:

Having grouped on one side, all the meritorious deeds, such as giving (dāna), etc., done by an inestimable number of beings in the infinite universe, during the period between the moment Sumedha resolved to achieve the goal of Buddhahood at the feet of Buddha Dīpaṅkara and the moment Prince Vessantara gave away his wife, Queen Maddī; and having grouped, on the other side, all the meritorious deeds done by the Bodhisatta alone, during the same length of time, the meritorious deeds in the former group would not come to even 100th nor 1,000th of those in the latter.

Hard to Become a Bodhisatta

Let alone becoming a Perfectly Self-Awakened One, the stage of development attained by the recluse Sumedha since he received the prediction of Buddhahood, can be reached only when one is endowed with eight factors. These are:

Only those who are endowed with these eight factors are able to wear the crown of prophesy accordingly. Let alone becoming a Buddha, it is very difficult to reach the stage of development like the recluse Sumedha when he became eligible to receive the prediction of Buddhahood.

When, as a Bodhisatta, it is so difficult to receive the prophecy of Buddhahood, what can be said of Buddhahood which can be attained only by fulfilling the perfections by the fourfold mode of development for at least four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyyas) and 100,000 aeons, after receiving the prophecy? Truly, it is hard to become a Buddha.

Since Buddhahood is so hard to attain, the moment of a Buddha’s emergence is also very hard to encounter. In this connection, the Collection of the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara-nikāya) gives an enumeration of eight moments or existences in Saṁsāra which are to be regarded as inopportune moments ^{Inopportune moment: akkhaṇa, literally, “a wrong moment.”} or unfortunate existences. On the other hand, the moment of a Buddha’s appearance is to be reckoned as an opportune moment of fortunate existence. The eight unfortunate existences are (Akkhaṇa-sutta, AN 8.29):

With regard to this fourth unfortunate existence, the author says that only the Brahmas who are devoid of consciousness (asañña-satta-bhūmi) are mentioned in the Collection of the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara-nikāya) commentary. In the the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra), however, the immaterial abodes (arūpa-bhūmi) are also included in this unfortunate existence. The reasons for its exclusion from the Collection of the Numerical Discourses are given by the author in the next paragraph. But as they are too technical we have omitted the paragraph in our translation.