The Dhamma Treasure

42: The Attributes of the Three Treasures

The Dhamma Treasure is made up of the nine supermundane phenomena, which are the four paths, the four fruitions and Nibbāna; and the doctrine (pariyatti) of the Buddha forming the Three Baskets (Tipiṭaka) or the Buddhist Scriptures, together with the practice of the doctrine (paṭipatti) as delineated in the texts. It also implies the attributes of the Three Treasures. This chapter features a discussion of the attributes of the Three Treasures in a treatment that is neither too concise nor too elaborate but that will cover all salient features.

The Nine Supreme Attributes of the Buddha

The Buddha is endowed with infinite noble qualities. However, for ready remembrance for the devotees among humans, Devas and Brahmas, only nine special attributes beginning with Worthiness (Arahaṁ), were specially taught by the Buddha in the various discourses, and the same applies to the teaching about the six supreme attributes of the Dhamma and the nine supreme attributes of the Saṅgha later.

Iti pi so Bhagavā Arahaṁ Sammā-sambuddho,
vijjā-caraṇa sampanno sugato loka-vidū,
anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi,
satthā Deva-manussānaṁ Buddho Bhagavā.

The Buddha ^{The Myanmar translation by Ashin Vepullābhidhaja Aggamahāpaṇḍita, Abbot of Vejayantā Brick Monastery, Kozaung Taik Myingyan, is rather elaborate and ornate. Only its salient features are rendered into English here.} who has attained Perfect Awakening after fulfilling the 10 perfections (pāramī) in three ways, and has destroyed all defilements is endowed with the following attributes:

1. He is Worthy (Arahaṁ), being perfectly pure of defilements, so that no trace of them, not even a vague impression, is left to suggest their presence; being incapable of doing evil, even where nobody could know of it; having broken up the spokes of the wheel of existence; being worthy of homage by all the three worlds of humans, Devas and Brahmas.

2. He is perfectly Self-Awakened (Sammā-sambuddho), in that he truly comprehends the Dhamma by his intellect and insight and is able to expound it to others.

3. He is endowed with the three knowledges (vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno): knowledge about the past existences of all beings, the divine eye and the extinction of all moral pollutants, which knowledges are expandable into eight knowledges together with the good conduct definable in fifteen ways.

4. The Buddha is Well-gone (Sugato) to Nibbāna through the four paths and fruitions (magga-ñāṇa); because the Buddha speaks only what is beneficial and true.

5. He knows the conditioned arising of all beings (loka-vidū), the bases of their arising in the various planes of existence, and the conditionality of physical and mental phenomena.

6. He is incomparable in taming those who deserve to be tamed (anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi).

7. He is the teacher of Devas and humans (Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ), showing them the path leading to Nibbāna. [1106]

8. He is the Awakened One (Buddho), who knows and teaches the four noble truths.

9. He is endowed with the six exalted qualities (Bhagavā): supremacy (issariya), knowledge of the nine supermundane factors (magga-phala-nibbāna), fame and following (yasa), physical perfection (sirī), power of accomplishment (kamma) and diligence (payatta).

An Explanation of the Above Attributes

Although the Buddha is endowed with infinite attributes only the above nine are declared in his discourses, as the attributes of the Buddha to the various hearers in the Deva and human worlds simply to meet the spiritual or intellectual capacity of the hearer. Each of the nine attributes should be taken as representative of a category of qualities which may be attributed to the Buddha. How the meaning of the nine attributes may be properly understood is given below, not too briefly and yet not too comprehensively either.

1. He is Worthy (Arahaṁ).

Here the attribute, in the abstract sense, and the possessor of the attribute, should be distinguished. The former refers to the natural states that arise in the mental process of the Buddha, while the latter refers to the particular continuum of the five aggregates wherein those attributes arise. There are five beneficial qualities included in the attribute of being Worthy. They are:

1. It means the Buddha, who has destroyed by the supermundane path (lokuttara-magga) all the defilements (kilesa), numbering 1,500, without leaving a trace. Defilements may be compared to one’s enemies that always work against one’s interest and welfare. The defilements were present in the mind-body continuum of the Bodhisatta; they are called enemies (ari). The Buddha, after meditating on dependent origination called the great diamond insight (mahā-vajira-vipassanā) as mentioned earlier on, attained Supreme Awakening on the undefeated throne. The four supermundane paths enabled him to destroy all those defilements group by group. So, the supermundane Dhamma, the four noble paths, are the attribute called Arahaṁ whereas the Buddha’s mind-body continuum of five aggregates is the possessor of that attribute.

2. Then there is the derivation of the word Arahaṁ from its root araha, meaning: “The one who has distanced himself from the defilements.” As explained above, the Buddha has destroyed all the defilements together with the subtle proclivity to some form of habit without leaving a trace; not even a vague impression to suggest their presence. The defilements and the proclivities have no possibility of ever arising in the Buddha. It is in this sense that the Buddha has distanced himself from the defilements and the proclivities. He has banished them thoroughly. This absolute casting off of all defilements together with proclivities is the attribute of Arahaṁ and the Buddha’s mind-body continuum of five aggregates is the possessor of that attribute. This attribute is derived from the four noble paths.

The vague impression is some subtle proclivity remaining in the ordinary Arahat’s mentality that can involuntarily cause some action to arise in him, as in the case of a worldling. This is because of lingering tendencies for certain actions that had repeatedly occurred in the previous existences of the Arahat concerned, in whom they remain as a residual force even after the destruction of all defilements.

An example of this phenomenon is found in Ven. Pilinda Vaccha, an Arahat who lived during the Buddha’s times. He had been, for 500 successive existences, a Brahmin of a haughty clan. Members of that clan considered every person outside of their [1107] clan as a scoundrel and the future Pilinda Vaccha used to address all outsiders as “scoundrels.” This habit became ingrained in him for so long a chain of existences that even after becoming an Arahat, Ven. Pilinda Vaccha could not help himself while addressing others, though inadvertently, as “you scoundrel.” This was not through any defilement of conceit of birth but was merely a habituated action of the past.

3. Arahaṁ can be interpreted as: “One who has no secret place for doing evil” (negative particle a + raha). There are some people who pose themselves as wise men or good men who put on appearances, but who are prone to evil in private. As for the Buddha, since he has destroyed all defilements absolutely, together with any proclivity to habitual actions, there can be no secret place for him to do evil nor does he do any evil in any secret place. This noble quality of having no secret place for evil is the attribute of Arahaṁ, and the Buddha’s mind-body continuum of five aggregates is the possessor of that attribute.

4. Arahaṁ can also mean: “One who has broken up into pieces the spokes that make up the wheel of existences” (ara + hata). Existence in the three spheres, which are the sensuous sphere, the form realm and the formless realm, are figuratively called “the carriage of the round of existences.” The continuous arising of the aggregates (khandha), and the sense spheres (āyatana) and elements (dhātu) is figuratively called “the wheel of existences,” which is the essential part of the carriage of the round of existences. In that wheel, there are ignorance and craving for existence as its hub, while volitions (puññābhisaṅkhārā) that find their expression in meritorious volitions or meritorious actions pertaining to the sensuous sphere and the form realm make up the spokes of the wheel that arise in the sensuous sphere and the form realm. Likewise, demeritorious volitions (apuññābhisaṅkhārā) that cause demeritorious actions pertaining to the four lower worlds (apāya) make up the spokes of the wheel that arise in the four lower worlds. And likewise, meritorious volitions pertaining to the formless realm (aneñjābhisaṅkhāra), and cause meritorious actions, make up the spokes of the wheel that arise in the formless realm.

Of the arising of those three types of volitions, ignorance and craving for existence are called “the hub,” since the hub is where the turning of the wheel originates, forming thereby the cause of the cycle of Saṁsāra. Its force is passed on to the rim or tyre, figuratively, the result that ends in ageing and death, by the spokes, the volitions.

It is due to the presence of the pollutants (āsava) that ignorance (avijjā) arises. Ignorance has its source or cause in the pollutants. As such, the pollutants can be seen as the axle that is fixed to the hub of ignorance and craving for ignorance.

Thus, in the wheel of Saṁsāra, with the axle of the pollutants fitted to the hub of ignorance and craving for existence, with the spokes of three volitions and the tyre of ageing and death, which has been turning since the beginningless Saṁsāra, that has borne the carriage of existence in the three spheres, the Buddha has, on his attaining Perfect Awakening, broken into pieces, the spokes of the wheel by standing on the two feet of mental and physical endeavour, taking a firm stand on morality (sīla), and holding, in his hand of conviction, the pick-axe of path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa), which is the merit that exhausts productive deeds (kamma).

Therefore, the breaking up of the spokes of the wheel of Saṁsāra by the pick-axe of the four paths and fruitions (magga-ñāṇa) is the attribute of Arahaṁ; the mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

Another explanation: [1108] The beginningless round of existences is called the cycle of Saṁsāra. This cycle, if reviewed in its ultimate sense, is a set of the twelve factors of dependent origination.

Ignorance being the source or cause of rebirth is the hub of the wheel. Ageing and death being the end of a given existence is the tyre of the wheel. The remaining ten factors, having the hub, ignorance, and the tyre, ageing and death, as their two extremities, are the spokes of the wheel.

The Buddha has totally destroyed these spokes of the wheel of Saṁsāra. Therefore the breaking up of the ten factors of dependent origination by the four strokes of the sword of the paths and fruitions (magga-ñāṇa) is the attribute of Arahaṁ in this fourth interpretation. The mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

5. Arahaṁ can also be interpreted as: “He who is worthy of homage by humans, Devas and Brahmas.” That is because the Buddha is the noblest person, worthy of receiving the special offerings of the four monastic requisites by all three worlds. That is why when the Buddha arises in the world, powerful Devas and humans do not make their offerings and pay homage to any other deity but the Buddha.

Let us take some important instances of this fact: Brahma Sahampati made a special offering of a garland of flowers the size of Mount Sineru to the Buddha. Other Devas and kings, such as Bimbisāra, Kosala, etc., made the greatest offerings they could afford to the Buddha; further, after the passing away of the Buddha, King Asoka spent 960 million to build 84,000 monasteries throughout Jambudīpa in honour of the Buddha.

Therefore, the incomparable morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), wisdom (paññā), emancipation (vimutti) and knowledge leading to emancipation (vimutti-ñāṇa-dassana), are the noble qualities that make the Buddha worthy of homage by humans, Devas and Brahmas, that is, the attribute of Arahaṁ. The mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

2. He is perfectly Self-Awakened (Sammā-sambuddha).

This is analysed like this: Sammā, truly, correctly; saṁ, on one’s own; buddho knower of all knowable things.

The Buddha discovered the Dhamma by his own intellect and insight, unaided by anyone. Paccekabuddhas also discover the Dhamma by their own intellect and insight. But they are not able to teach the Dhamma, which they discover, to other persons, so they do not deserve the epithet Sammā-sambuddha. They are only called Sambuddha, as in Paccekasambuddha.

Noble disciples (ariya) know the Dhamma only with the assistance of some teachers and they are able to teach it to others, but, since they do not discover the Dhamma by themselves, they are also not called Sammā-sambuddha. They are only called Sammā-buddha, rightly Awakened. The Buddhas are Sambuddha, knowers of the Dhamma and all knowable things through Self-Awakening. They are also Sammā-buddha because they can teach the four truths to their disciples each according to their capacity, and in the language they can understand. So, a combination of these two qualities makes the Buddha deserving of the title Perfectly Self-Awakened, or Sammā-sambuddha.

Therefore, the four path-knowledges (magga-ñāṇa) that enable the Buddha to know, unaided, all knowable things with omniscience at the highest level, is this attribute called Sammā-sambuddha. The mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

3. He is endowed with the three knowledges (vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno).

The one endowed with the three knowledges or the eight knowledges and the fifteen forms of good conduct. The three knowledges are taught by the Buddha in the Discourse about Fear and Fright (Bhaya-bherava-sutta, MN 4), the eight knowledges are taught by the Buddha in the Discourse to Ambaṭṭha (Ambaṭṭha-sutta, DN 3). The two ways of teaching knowledge in three categories and eight categories is adopted by the Buddhas through compassionate consideration of the mental framework of [1109] the hearers on each occasion.

The three knowledges:

1. The knowledge of past existences (pubbe-nivāsa-ñāṇa). By this knowledge, the Buddha can see the past existences of himself and other beings.

2. The knowledge of the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu-ñāṇa). By this knowledge, the Buddha can see things at far away places, things concealed, and things too subtle for the ordinary human eyes to see.

3. The knowledge of the extinction of the pollutants (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa). This is knowledge of the Arahat fruition (Arahatta-phala-ñāṇa) which extinguishes all four of the pollutants.

The eight knowledges:

1-3 as above, and:

4. Insight knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa). This is understanding the impermanence, suffering and unsubstantiality of all conditioned mental and physical phenomena.

5. Psychic power of the mind (manomayiddhi-ñāṇa). The power to assume various forms through mastery of mind, accomplished by absorption (jhāna) practice.

6. Multifarious kinds of psychic power (iddhividha-ñāṇa). The power to conjure up great numbers of various forms, human or otherwise.

7. The knowledge of the divine ear (dibba-sota-ñāṇa). The power to hear sounds from far away places, sounds muffled and sounds too subtle to hear by the ordinary human ear.

8. The knowledge of reading the mind of others (ceto-pariyāyaya-ñāṇa). The Buddha can know the minds of others in sixteen different ways.

Of the above eight knowledges, the fourth knowledge, insight knowledge, is knowledge pertaining to the sensuous sphere. The third knowledge, knowledge of extinction of the pollutants (āsava) is supermundane knowledge. The remaining six knowledges pertain to the form realm absorption (jhāna) powers called (rūpāvacara-kriyā-abhiññā-ñāṇa).

The Fifteen Forms of Perfect Practice of Morality

1. Morality of restraint (sīla-saṁvara). The observance of the monastic precepts of restraint under the Monastic Rule (Pātimokkha-saṁvara-sīla).

2. Control of the faculties (indriyesu gutta-dvāratā). Keeping watch over the doors of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind with constant mindfulness, so as not to allow any demeritoriousness enter.

3. Knowing the proper extent regarding food (bojane mataññutā). He knows the proper extent in receiving alms food, and in enjoying it. In receiving alms food, the Buddha considers the degree of devotion of the supporter. If the devotion is strong but the gift is small, the Buddha does not scorn the gift for its smallness but accepts it. On the hand, if the gift is big but the supporter’s devotion is weak, the Buddha accepts only a small amount of the gift, considering the weak devotion of the supporter. If the gift is big and the supporter’s devotion is strong, the Buddha accepts just an appropriate amount to satisfy his need. This is called knowing the proper extent regarding the acceptance of alms food. In enjoying the food thus collected, the Buddha never eats to the full but stops four or five morsels short of filling his stomach. More important, he never takes food without cultivating the monastic’s contemplation while eating.

4. Wakefulness (jāgariyānuyoga). Wakefulness does not mean just remaining without sleep. The Buddha spends the whole day: during the first watch of the night and the last watch of the night in meditation, while walking or sitting, thus keeping away the hindrances. This purposeful waking is called wakefulness. Out of 24 hours in a day, the Buddha sleeps just four hours, i.e., between 10p.m. and [1110] 2a.m., to recuperate his energy; the remaining 20 hours are spent in meditation and monastic practice.

The seven properties of virtuous persons:

5. Confidence in the Three Treasures (saddhā).

6. Mindfulness (sati).

7. Conscience about doing evil (hiri).

8. Concern about doing evil (ottapa).

9. Wide learning of the doctrine (bāhu-sacca).

10. Diligence (viriya).

11. Wisdom (paññā).

12-15. The four form realm absorptions (jhāna). These refer to the four absorptions (jhāna) of the form realm under the fourfold reckoning of absorptions (jhāna).

The above fifteen forms of good conduct lead straight to Nibbāna, the deathless element, which as worldlings, the disciples never have realized before. Hence they are called good conduct (caraṇa).

Knowledge (vijjā) and good conduct (caraṇa) are complementary to each other. The former is like the eyes, whereas the latter is like the legs. To get to a desired place the eyes without the legs cannot accomplish it any more than the legs without the eyes. Therefore, knowledge and good conduct should be cultivated together.

4. Being Well-gone (Sugato). The commentary explains this attribute in four ways:

1. Su, well; gata, gone. Thus the going to, the attaining of, the noble path, hence the one who has attained the noble paths is the first meaning. The noble path is faultless or flawless and therefore is magnificent. Therefore, the Buddha is called Well-gone (Sugato) because he proceeds to the haven from all dangers, by the magnificent path, in an unattached attitude. Under this interpretation, the noble path is the attribute and the mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of that attribute.

2. Su = Nibbāna, the excellent goal; gata, means he proceeds there by means of knowledge. Nibbāna is the excellent goal because it is the end of all strife and is the ultimate [1111] peace. Attaining that excellent goal with path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) at one sitting is the Buddha’s attribute. Here the noble path is the attribute and the mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of that attribute.

In both of these interpretations, proceeding to Nibbāna means having Nibbāna as an object of thought. The going or proceeding here is by means of knowledge only and does not, indeed cannot, connote the physical act of going which only applies where a certain geographical place is the destination.

3. Su = Sammā, well; gata, means gone to Nibbāna by means of path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa). Here the adverb “well” denotes freedom from the defilements. The going is well since the defilements destroyed by the four path-knowledges do not arise in the Buddha any more.

In all the above three interpretations the ultimate sense is the same, having Nibbāna as object of thought through the four paths. This is the first explanation of Well-gone (Sugato) in the brief meaning given earlier on.

4. Su = Sammā, well; gata, speaks appropriately on all occasions. Here the root gada is changed into gata. The appropriate speech, or speaking well, is further explained thus: There are six kinds of speech among people; of these six, four should be rejected, i.e., not resorted to, and only two should be adopted.

1. There is the kind of speech which is not true, which is not beneficial, and not liked by the other party; for instance, saying that a virtuous person is wicked. The Buddha avoids this kind of speech.

2. There is the kind of speech which is true but which is of no benefit to, and not acceptable to, the other party; for instance, calling a bad man a bad man, not intending to correct him but merely out of malice. The Buddha avoids this kind of speech also.

3. There is the kind of speech which is true, which is beneficial but is not liked by the other party hearing it; for instance, referring to Devadatta as the one heading for Niraya, which was spoken by the Buddha out of compassion for him. The Buddha speaks this kind of speech when occasion demands it.

4. There is the kind of speech which is not true, which is not beneficial to the other party, but is liked by him; for instance, quoting the Vedas and claiming that an evil deed such as killing will lead to the good destinations. The Buddha avoids this kind of speech also.

5. There is the kind of speech which is true but is not beneficial to the other party, and he likes to hear it; for instance, a true statement which is going to drive a wedge between the other parties. The Buddha avoids this kind of speech also.

6. There is the kind of speech which is true, which is beneficial to the other party, and he likes to hear it; for instance, discourse on generosity, morality, etc. given on appropriate occasions. The Buddha speaks this kind of speech when the occasion is appropriate.

Out of the above six kinds of speech, the Buddha speaks only the third and the sixth kinds.

Regarding the third kind above, if a statement is true and is beneficial to the other party, although he does not like to hear it, the Buddha would say it because it would benefit other people who might hear it, and it will therefore be for the good of the world at large.

Thus, if a statement is true and is beneficial to the hearer, the Buddha says it whether the hearer likes it or not. Therefore the Buddha is called Well-gone (Sugato), the one who speaks what is beneficial and true. The speaking of what is beneficial and true is the attribute, and the mind-body continuum of the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

The Discourse about Prince Abhaya

These six kinds of speech are featured in [1112] the Discourse to Prince Abhaya. A brief account follows: At one time, the Buddha was staying in Veḷuvana monastery at Rājagaha. During that time, Prince Abhaya, son of King Bimbisāra approached his teacher, Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, and, after paying respects to him, sat in a suitable place.

Then Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta said to Prince Abhaya: “Go to the ascetic Gotama, prince, and accuse him with falsity in doctrine. If you can accuse him you will gain wide fame as one who can accuse even the ascetic Gotama with falsity in doctrine.”

“But, venerable sir,” said Prince Abhaya, “how am I to accuse ascetic Gotama, who is so powerful, of falsity in doctrine?”

1. “Prince, go to ascetic Gotama and say this: ‘Venerable sir, would you say something that is unacceptable or unwelcome to someone?’ And if ascetic Gotama were to reply: ‘Prince, the Realised One would say something that is unacceptable or unwelcome to someone.’ In that case, you should say to ascetic Gotama: ‘Venerable sir, if that is so, what is the difference between the venerable one and any other worldling? For any worldling would say something unacceptable or unwelcome to someone.’

2 If, on the other hand, ascetic Gotama replies: ‘Prince, the Realised One would not say something that is unacceptable or unwelcome to someone.’ In that case, you should say to ascetic Gotama: ‘Venerable sir, if that is so, why did the venerable one say to Devadatta: “You, Devadatta are heading to the lower realms of Niraya, you are going to suffer in the Niraya realms throughout an aeon, you are irredeemable?” If I may add, Ven. Devadatta is very angry and miserable at those remarks.’ Prince, if you only confront ascetic Gotama with the above questions, which allows no escape for him, that ascetic Gotama will be just helpless, like a man who has swallowed a fish-hook.”

Prince Abhaya was a censorious person and so gladly undertook to do what his master asked. “Very well, master,” he said, and after paying respects to Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, he left him. He went to the Veḷuvana monastery where the Buddha was staying, and after paying respects to the Buddha, he sat in a suitable place. Then he looked at the sun which was [1113] about to set. He thought: “It took four months for my teacher to formulate this question. If such a profound question were to be taken up point by point, there would not be sufficient time today. I will confront the Buddha tomorrow at my palace,” he thought to himself. So he said to the Buddha: “Venerable sir, may the venerable one, for the sake of my merit, kindly accept an offering of food to the venerable one and three other monastics at my palace tomorrow.”

The Buddha accepted the invitation of Prince Abhaya by remaining silent. Prince Abhaya, having noted that his invitation was accepted, rose from his seat and, paying respects to the Buddha, returned to his palace.

The next morning the Buddha went to the palace of Prince Abhaya and took his meal there. After the meal was finished Prince Abhaya took his seat at a lower place and addressed the Buddha as taught by Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta thus: “Venerable sir, would the venerable one say something that is unacceptable or unwelcome to someone?” the Buddha said to Prince Abhaya: “Prince Abhaya, regarding your question, no single answer can be given in a straight yes or no.”

By this single statement the Buddha crushed the question like a mountain shattered by a thunder bolt, thus disposing of the weighty question which took four months for Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta to formulate.

Thereupon Prince Abhaya could no longer challenge the Buddha and said to him: “Venerable sir, by this question all the Nigaṇṭhas have gone to wreck and ruin!” – “Prince, why do you say: ‘Venerable sir, by this question all the Nigaṇṭhas have gone to wreck and ruin?’ ” Prince Abhaya then recounted the whole episode about his visit to Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta and the mission he was assigned by his master.

At that time, Prince Abhaya had on his lap his infant child who could only lie flat on its back.

The Buddha, being infinitely wiser than Prince Abhaya, chose to make the infant itself trounce the prince. And even before Prince Abhaya could find time to pinch the baby, the Buddha asked Prince Abhaya thus: “Prince Abhaya, what do you think of this? You may answer whatever you think fit. Suppose this infant on your lap, either due to your negligence or to the negligence of its nurse, were to put a piece of wood or a potsherd or a broken piece of a glass bottle in its mouth, what would you do to the infant?”

And Prince Abhaya answered: “Venerable sir, I would take out the piece of wood or [1114] potsherd or broken glass from the baby quickly. If there should be difficulty in taking it out at the first attempt, then I would hold the baby’s head fast with my left hand, and, with the bent forefinger of my right hand, I would dislodge the piece of wood or potsherd or broken glass from its mouth even if that operation might draw blood. I would do it because I have great love and compassion for my baby.” – “Prince Abhaya, on the same analogy, there are these six kinds of speech:

Prince Abhaya, out of these six kinds of speech, the Realised One avoids four of them and speaks two of them. This is because I have great good will and compassion on all beings.”

The Story of a Rustic Old Man

A rustic old man was drinking in a liquor shop in town. A group of swindlers joined him and conspired between themselves to divest the old man of his possessions by trickery. They agreed among themselves: “We shall relate our experiences each in turn. Anyone who says he does not believe it will lose all his possessions to the story-teller and also become his slave.” And they said to the old man: “Grand uncle, do you agree to this proposition?” The old man replied: “So be it boys, so be it.”

Then the first town dweller at the drinking party related his story thus: “Friends, when my mother conceived me, she had a particular longing to eat wood apple. And as she had no one to pick the fruit for her she sent me to pick a wood apple. Then I who was in my mother’s womb, went to a wood apple tree. As I could not climb up the tree, I took hold of my two legs and threw them upwards into the tree as I would a wooden club. Then I went from one bough to the other and picked the wood apples. After that I found myself unable to climb down the tree and so I went back home, took a ladder and used it to get down. I gave the fruit, to my mother. They were of a size as big as a water pot.

All the wood apples were carried down the tree in my pouch fashioned from the loin cloth I was wearing. Out of my gathering of wood apples my mother ate 60 of them at one sitting till she satisfied herself with the special longing during conception. The remainder of the fruit, after my mother had eaten, were for distribution to all the villagers, both young and old. The front room of our house is sixteen cubits wide, we stored the wood apples in it after removing all furniture from there. The fruit filled the room to the roof. The surplus fruit had to be piled up outside the house and it was as high as a hillock of 80 cubits high. Now, friends, what do you say? Do you believe the story or not?” [1115]

The rustic old man remained silent. The town folks at the drinking party answered in the positive. Then they asked the old man: “Do you believe the story?” The old man replied: “Well, this is a vast country. It is believable in this vast country.”

The remaining men at the drinking party told their tall stories in turn. And then it was the old man’s turn. “Now listen to my story,” he said. “Not only are the houses in your town big and grand, houses in our village are also big and grand. I want you to note that our family specializes in cotton planting. We have hundreds of acres under cotton cultivation.

Amidst the vast cotton plantation, we had a particularly big cotton plant that grew to a height of 80 cubits. There were five branches in it. Of those five, four were fruitless, but the fifth one, turning to the east, bore a huge cotton pod as big as a water jar. From that pod with six compartments there bloomed forth six blossoms of cotton flower.

I shaved myself, bathed, and after applying unguent to my body, I went to the cotton field and when I saw the six big cotton blossoms from the same pod I was very pleased. I reached out to them and plucked them. Then lo and behold! In place of these six cotton blossoms there were in my hands six strong slave men. These six slave men of mine left me and ran away to other places. I have not seen them for a long time. Now only, I have found them. They are none other than the six of you. You, my boy, are Nanda my slave. And you are Poṇṇa, my slave. And you are Vaḍḍhamāna, my slave. And you are Citta, my slave. And you are Maṅgala, my slave. And you are Poṭṭhiya, my slave.” Then the old men rose up suddenly and stood holding the six knots of the six men firmly in his hand.

The six town dwellers who were at the drinking party could not deny that the story was not true, for if they did, they would, under the terms of agreement, become slaves to the old man, all the same. The old man then took the six men to the court where they were officially branded as slaves and they remained so for as long as the old man lived.”

This sort of nonsensical speech may be amusing but it is not true and is not beneficial. This kind of speech is never spoken by the Buddha.

Then Prince Abhaya said to the Buddha: “Venerable sir, when wise princes, wise Brahmins, wise householders and wise monastics come to you with their various questions, do you have answers thought out beforehand to fit their possible questions? Or do the answers come to mind instantly?”

The Buddha said to the Prince: “Prince Abhaya, in that case, I will put a question to you. You may answer it in any way you like. Now, what do you think of this? You are an expert in chariots, are you not?”

“That is true, venerable sir, I am an expert about the chariot and its various components.”

“Prince, what do you think of this? If anybody should ask you: ‘What is this part of the chariot called?’ Would you have the answer thought out beforehand, or would you answer it straight away instantly?”

“Venerable sir, I am reputed as an expert about chariots. I am skilful about all the components of a chariot. All the components of the chariot are clear in my mind. Therefore any question concerning a chariot is at my finger tips.”

“Prince, in much the same way, when wise princes, wise Brahmins, wise householders, and wise monastics come to me with their various questions, the answer comes to my mind instantly. This is because the Realised One is possessed of the Dhamma-element (Dhamma-dhātu), which is omniscience, the penetrating knowledge about all things knowable.”

When this was said in a wonderfully amiable manner, Prince Abhaya was deeply impressed. He begged of the Buddha to be his refuge, the Dhamma to be his refuge, the Saṅgha to be his refuge, and became a disciple of the Buddha

5. He knows the conditioned arising of all beings (loka-vidū).

Loka means the five aggregates that are clung to (upādānakkhandha); in another sense, the world of sentient beings (satta-loka), the world of conditioned phenomena, (saṅkhāra-loka), the world as the bases of various planes of existence (okāsa-loka). Vidu means the one who has analytical knowledge and complete comprehension.

The the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga) explains loka-vidū in two ways:

1. Under the first method, loka is interpreted as the five aggregates that are clung to. These five are understood:

Thus loka-vidū means the Buddha has complete knowledge about the five aggregates that are clung to.

In knowing about the world of the five aggregates that are clung to, the Buddha knows not only the five aggregates but knows them in their four aspects that make his knowledge complete and perfect. The four aspects are:

Thus the Buddha has a complete understanding of the five aggregates that are clung to. That is why the Buddha is called loka-vidū. Under the first method, the complete all-round knowledge from the four aspects of the five aggregates of clinging is the attribute of loka-vidū. The five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of that attribute.

2. Although the first method of interpretation is complete about the world of the five aggregates, the method does not describe loka fully yet. Therefore, the commentary gives a second interpretation.

Under the second method, loka is taken to mean the world of sentient beings (satta-loka), the world of conditioned phenomena (saṅkhāra-loka) and the world constituting the bases for the various planes of existence (okāsa-loka). Loka means that which rises and falls, that undergoes rise and fall. In the Abhidhamma point of view, the aggregates of living things are called the aggregates connected with the faculties (indriya-baddha-khandā). The aggregates of non-living things are called the aggregates divested of the faculties (anindriya-baddha-khandā).

We shall expand on this as explained in The Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga): Eko loko sabbe sattā āhāraṭṭhitikā, “all beings have each its own conditioning factors; this is a world in itself.” ^{[The Path of Discrimination (Paṭisambhidā-magga) is quoted here.]} Therefore, loka here means the conditioned world (saṅkhāra-loka). This is because although reference is made to all beings, the crucial point here is the conditioned nature which is causing the rise and fall of all beings. [1117]

1. The Buddha has full knowledge about the conditioned world in that he knows it:

2. Just as the Buddha has full knowledge of the conditioned world, so also he knows fully about the world of living beings in that:

He knows individuals who have little dust of defilements in their eye of wisdom, and he knows individuals who have a thick layer of dust of defilements in their eye of wisdom. He knows individuals who have sharp faculties such as conviction, and he knows individuals who have dull faculties. He knows individuals who have a natural desire for liberation and individuals who have little desire for liberation. He knows individuals who are endowed with righteousness such as conviction and wisdom that facilitate them to win path-knowledge, and individuals not so endowed. He knows individuals who are free from drawbacks in their previous deeds, defilements and resultants that mar the attainment of path-knowledge and individuals not so free.

1. Proclivities (āsaya).

Proclivities means the mental bent or disposition of individuals. For example, a forest deer is naturally disposed to live in the forest; he may go out to the fields to graze but his home is the forest. Similarly, individuals attend their mind to various sense objects but, after wandering about from object to object, the mind of those who are bent on faring in the round of existences remain in wrong views, whereas the mind of those who are bent on liberation from the round of existences, are pure, and remain in knowledge. So wrong views and knowledge are called proclivities (āsaya).

The proclivity of wrong views, diṭṭhi-āsaya, is again of two kinds: the proclivity towards the wrong view of annihilation (uccheda-diṭṭhi), and the proclivity towards the wrong view of eternalism (sassata-diṭṭhi).

The proclivity towards wisdom, paññā-āsaya, also is of two kinds: insight knowledge tending to path-knowledge (vipassanā-paññā-āsaya), and path-knowledge itself which is the knowledge in seeing things as they really are (yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-āsaya).

In knowing the proclivities of individuals, the Buddha knows:

2. Latent tendencies (anusaya).

These are defilements that have not been eradicated by path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) and are liable to arise perceptibly whenever circumstances prevail. These latent tendencies are of seven kinds. They are called the elements of latent tendencies. They are:

In knowing the latent tendencies of individuals, the Buddha knows that this individual is full of the latent tendency to passion; that this individual is full of the latent tendency of attachment to existence, that this individual is full of the latent tendency of hatred … the latent tendency of conceit … the latent tendency of wrong views … the latent tendency of uncertainty … the latent tendency of ignorance.

Anusaya-kilesa, it should be noted, is of three degrees according to its tendency to occur, namely:

Let us illustrate this: Supposing some worldling in whom defilements have not yet been eradicated by path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) was making an offering. Even during the meritorious act, while great wholesome thoughts (mahā-kusala-citta) are arising in his mind, if he were to meet with some pleasant sense object, this circumstance tends to bring alive sensuous thoughts, it is the latent tendency of passion in the supporter because being a worldling, he has not eradicated passion.

When further contact occurs with the sense object that is agreeable to him, that latent tendency of passion grows into decidedly defiled thoughts (pariyuṭṭhāna-kilesa). Then, if he checks himself with right attention, the thoughts defiled by passion may subside.

If, however, instead of right attention, he is driven by wrong attention, the defiled thoughts become translated into wicked acts, either bodily or verbally. This is the eruptive stage of the defilement of passion (vītikkama-kilesa).

This is an example of the way the defilement of passion grows from its latent tendency or seed element to overt acts in three progressive stages. The same principle also applies to the other defilements, such as hatred, conceit, etc.

3. Habitual conduct (carita).

Habitual conduct means meritorious actions or demeritorious actions. In another sense, it refers to the six kinds of habituated action or habitual conduct that occurs frequently in the present life: greed (rāga), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha), faith (saddhā), intelligence (buddhi), and cogitation (vitakka).

The Buddha knows the habitual conduct (carita) of every individual, such as this individual is predominantly of good conduct (sucarita); this individual is predominantly of bad conduct (duccarita); this individual is predominantly of greedy conduct (rāga-carita); this individual is predominantly of hateful conduct (dosa-carita); this individual is predominantly of deluded conduct (moha-carita); this individual is predominantly of faithful conduct (saddhā-carita); this individual is predominantly of intelligent conduct (buddhi-carita); this individual is predominantly of a cogitative conduct (vitakka-carita). Further, the Buddha also knows the nature of these six types of conduct, the defiling conditions, the purifying conditions, the essential conditions, the results, and the consequences of these six types of conduct.

4. Leaning or disposition (adhimutti).

Disposition means the natural leaning of individuals. There are two kinds of disposition: the natural preference for, or leaning towards, ignoble things (hīnādhimutti), and the natural preference for, or leaning towards, noble things (paṇītādhimutti). People generally associate with persons of like nature; those of ignoble disposition associate with persons of ignoble disposition; those of noble disposition associate with persons of noble disposition.

The Buddha knows the type of disposition in every individual, such as whether a certain [1119] person is of ignoble disposition or of noble disposition.

Further, the Buddha knows the degree of disposition in each individual, such as whether it is high, or lower, or lowest. Disposition depends on the degree of faith, endeavour, mindfulness, concentration, and knowledge, which are the five faculties.

Thus the Buddha knows fully about living beings in respect of the four proclivities (āsaya), the seven latent tendencies (anusaya); the three volitions (abhisaṅkhāra) or the six types of habitual conduct (carita), and the types and degrees of disposition (adhimutti).

3. Just as the Buddha has complete knowledge of the world of living beings, he also has complete knowledge of the world of non-living things; the places where living beings have their abodes, such as the world-elements (cakka-vāḷa), mansions, forests and mountains, etc.

In this way the Buddha has a complete knowledge of the infinite world-elements as bases for sentient existence. This complete and clear knowledge of the world of living beings, the world of conditioned phenomena and the world of non-living things is the attribute of loka-vidū. The five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of that attribute.

6. He is incomparable in taming those who deserve to be tamed (anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi).

The Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga) gives the explanation of anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi in two separate ways: anuttaro explained as one attribute and damma-sārathi as another. And it also gives a combined meaning as one attribute. We shall describe both the interpretations here:

Anuttaro. The Buddha is incomparable in morality and so on, in the whole world, so that he reigns supreme in this attribute among the world of living beings. To explain this further: The Buddha reigns supreme in morality, in concentration, in wisdom, in emancipation, and in knowledge leading to emancipation. This supremacy is the attribute of anuttaro; the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of that attribute.

Purisa-damma-sārathi. He who tames those who deserve to be tamed [1122] (purisa-damma), those beings deserving to be tamed; sarathi, the tamer, i.e., a skilful teacher or instructor. Those deserving to be tamed include humans, Devas and Brahmas. For example, the Buddha tamed Nāga kings: Apalāla, Cūḷodara, Mahodara, Aggisikha, Dhūmasikha, and Aravāḷa, Dhanapāla the elephant king, etc. and made them abandon their savagery and established them in the three refuges. Then the Buddha tamed Saccaka; the wandering ascetic, Nigaṇṭhaputta; Ambaṭṭha, the young man; Brahmins Pokkharasāti, Soṇadanta and Kūṭadanta, etc. He also tamed powerful Devas, such as Āḷavaka, Sūciloma, Kharaloma and even Sakka, the Lord of the Devas.

The Buddha not only tamed individuals from their savage stage into being disciples, but also uplifted those virtuous persons who had had purity of morality to attain the first absorption (jhāna), or the noble ones (ariya) who were Stream-enterers, to attain the three higher paths by showing the method of training. So his taming also includes leading already half-tamed persons to the Arahat fruition (Arahatta-phala). Therefore, purisa-damma-sārathi means establishing savage beings in the lower morality, and guiding those possessed of lower morality, i.e., those half-tamed, to attain the higher benefits leading to the Arahat fruition (Arahatta-phala). This knowledge of instructing others is the attribute of damma-sārathi. The five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

In the combined interpretation of anuttaro and purisa-damma-sārathi, only a single attribute is counted, to mean the Buddha, who is unrivalled in taming those who are untamed. To explain this: When a horse tamer trains a horse, he does not and cannot train it into the desired state in a day. He has to train it over many days repeatedly. The same holds true with other animals, such as elephants, bullocks, etc. Even when a horse is supposed to be tame it is not free from pranks. The same holds true with other animals. But the Buddha can tame a person at once in the course of one dialogue to attain the eight absorptions (jhāna) or attain the Arahat fruition. When the disciple has became an Arahat he becomes completely tamed never showing any more mad frolics. Therefore the Buddha is unrivalled in taming the untamed. The knowledge of tutoring the untutored, ignorant, persons is the attribute of anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi; the five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

7. He is the teacher of Devas and humans (Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ).

This means the Buddha guides Devas and humans to gain for themselves the benefits at present, the benefits in the future, and the ultimate benefit of Nibbāna. The Buddha teaches, exhorts and instructs all beings to gain present benefits for some; to gain benefit in future existences, for others; and to attain the ultimate benefit of Nibbāna, for others; each according to his or her sufficiency of past merit. Therefore the knowledge in helping Devas and humans to gain present benefits, benefits in the future, and the benefit of Nibbāna is the attribute of Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ. The five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

Another explanation: the Buddha is like the master of a caravan, hence he is called Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ.

To explain it further: A wise leader of a caravan (satthā) conducts the caravan safely over a difficult and dangerous journey. There are five kinds of difficult and dangerous journeys:

Just as a good leader of a caravan safely conducts the caravan through the above five kinds of hazardous journey, so also the Buddha gives protection to the wayfarers of the journey of life against the hazards of the journey marked by rebirth, ageing, disease and death, grief, lamentation, pain, sorrow and anguish, lust, hatred, delusion, conceit, wrong view and demeritorious deeds, and conducts them to the safety of Nibbāna. Therefore, the doctrine of the Buddha which leads beings to Nibbāna is the attribute of Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ; the [1123] five aggregates of the Buddha is the possessor of this attribute.

Maṇḍūka Devaputta

At one time, the Buddha was staying at a monastery close to Gaggarā Lake, near the city of Campā, which served as his place for collecting daily alms food. One morning, on his usual Buddha routine of entering the absorption of compassion, he saw that, if he held a discourse in the evening, a frog would come, and being absorbed in the sound of the Dhamma speech, it would be killed accidentally, and be reborn in the Deva realm. And that Deva would come to him, accompanied by his big retinue which would be seen by the large audience who would gain knowledge of the four truths and so make an end of suffering.

After having this foreknowledge through his absorption of compassion, the Buddha went into the city of Campā for alms round in the morning. When the morning meal was finished, he went to the monastery, received the homage paid by the monastics, and went into seclusion in his scented chamber, spending the day in the bliss of the absorption of the Arahat fruition.

In the evening, when the four kinds of assembly were gathered at the lecture hall near Gaggarā Lake, the Buddha came out of his scented chamber, took his seat in the lecture hall, and delivered a discourse. At that time, a frog came out from the lake, listened to the voice of the Buddha, and knowing that “this is the voice of the Dhamma,” was absorbed in it.

Then a cowherd came upon the scene and being deeply impressed by the Buddha’s splendour in delivering the discourse and the deep silence in which the audience were listening to the discourse, he stood there leaning on his staff in hand. He did not notice that there was a frog on whose head his staff was resting.

The frog died on the spot, even while it was absorbed in the sweet voice of the Dhamma. As it died in full consciousness of the clear conviction in the goodness of the Dhamma, it was reborn in the Tāvatiṁsa Realm, with a golden mansion twelve leagues wide as his residence, waited upon by a large retinue of Devakaññā, or Divine Maidens.

Then he pondered on his new state: “How have I got into this Deva existence? I was just a frog in my previous existence. What merit sent me, a mere animal, to this high state?” And he saw no other merit than his getting absorbed in the voice of the Buddha’s discourse which was the voice of the Dhamma.

Then he went to the Buddha, while himself staying in his mansion, in the company of the divine maidens. He and his divine maidens descended from the mansion in full view of the human audience and stood before the Buddha in worshipping attitude.

The Buddha knew the Deva, who was the frog which was stamped to death just a moment ago. Still, to let the audience realize the workings of productive deeds (kamma), as well as to show the abnormal psychic power of the Buddha in seeing the past existences of all beings, he spoke to the Deva in the following verse:

“Surrounded by a large retinue, shedding resplendent light all around with such powerful possession of a personal aura, who is it that pays homage to me?”

And the Deva who, just a moment ago, had been a frog replied: [1124]

“Venerable sir, in my previous existence, I had been a frog, born and brought up in the water. Even while I was absorbed in your voice teaching Dhamma, a cowherd caused my death with his staff.

Venerable sir, just at the instant of my death, due to the serenity of my mind in listening to the Fortunate One’s voice, I was reborn a Deva. And now, venerable sir, see my glorious state, replete with retinue, my personal appearance and everything, and, above all, my effulgence that reaches twelve leagues!

Gotama, may those, who have for a long time listened to the Dhamma taught by you, attain the Peace of Nibbāna through path-knowledge and become free from all sorrow.”

Then the Buddha delivered the discourse in detail, suited to the audience, by judging their past merits that would serve as sufficing conditions for Awakening. By the end of the discourse, 84,000 beings comprehended the four truths and made an end of suffering. The Deva who had been a frog attained Stream-entry. He made obeisance to the Buddha, turned round with the Buddha on his right, and also worshipping the Saṅgha, returned to the Deva realm in the company of his large retinue of Devakaññā.

8. He is the Awakened One (Buddha).

He is called the Buddha because he knows fully all knowable things. In another sense, he is the knower of the truths and also makes the four truths known to beings fit to know them. Hence, he is called the Buddha.

The distinction between the second attribute of Sammā-sambuddha and the eighth attribute of Buddha lies in that the former refers to the four truths, while the latter refers to the omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa). If, however, the attribute Buddha is taken as supreme knowledge as the same for Sammā-sambuddha, then the former relates to the penetrative knowledge (paṭivedha-ñāṇa) of the Buddha’s wisdom while the latter relates to the skilful aspect of the Buddha’s wisdom in enlightening others (desanā-ñāṇa).

9. He is endowed with the six exalted qualities (Bhagavā).

This attribute of the Buddha is explained in a variety of ways in the Long Exposition (Mahā-niddesa). The commentary also explains it in six different ways, while the sub-commentary to the Path to Purification (Visuddhi-magga) gives seven different interpretations. Here we shall discuss the first method of explanation in the Pāḷi which is also the third method of explanation in the commentary. This is the meaning generally given by Myanmar translators in their close literal renderings of the word, i.e., “He who is endowed with six exalted qualities,” bhaga, the six exalted qualities; vanta, being possessed of.

The Buddha is called the Fortunate One (Bhagavā) because he is endowed with the six exalted qualities unattainable by the disciples namely: 1) Supremacy (issariya); 2) the 9 supermundane attainments (Dhamma); 3) fame (yasa); 4) glory (sirī); 5) accomplishment (kāma) and 6) diligence (payatta).

1. Supremacy (issariya).

It means the innate power of the Buddha to bend things to his will. Supremacy is of two kinds, supermundane will power (lokuttara-cittissariya) and mundane will power (loka-cittissariya).

As regards supermundane will power, the Buddha has unsurpassed will power. In [1125] displaying the twin miracle, to get a stream of water from the desired part of his body, he enters into the preliminary absorption of the water meditation object (āpo-kasiṇa) and then makes the resolve: “May there be a stream of water,” which is a separate impulsion thought process (adhiṭṭhāna-vīthi). Then he enters into the preliminary absorption of the water meditation object again. Then the special impulsion thought-process (abhiññāṇa-vīthi) arises that causes the stream of water to appear from whatever part of his body as he has willed it.

Thus, to effect a stream of water from the desired part of his body, the Buddha has to go through four different thought-processes. Likewise, to get a stream of fire glow from the desired part of his body, the Buddha enters into the preliminary absorption of the fire meditation object (tejo-kasiṇa) and then makes the resolve: “May there be a stream of fire,” which is a separate impulsion thought-process. Then he enters into the preliminary absorption of the fire meditation object again. Then the special impulsion thought-process arises that causes the stream of fire to appear from whatever part of his body he has willed it.

Briefly speaking, to get a stream of water to flow from the body, the Buddha has to go through four separate thought-processes. The same is required to get a stream of fire to burn from the body. The mastery of the Buddha’s will power is such that in going through the thought-process in entering into the preliminary absorptions he can bring to a stop the thought-process in any number of thought-moments he chooses. The life continuum thought-moments (bhavaṅga-citta) that have to intervene between the separate thought-processes are also limited to two. ^{Compare this to the case with the disciples who would need as many life-continuum thought-moments as they feel necessary.} The mastery in arranging the separate thought-processes and the life continuum thought-moments as desired are the astonishing features of the Buddha’s accomplishment in will power. This is the power in controlling mundane absorption (jhāna).

Likewise, in supermundane consciousness of the Arahat fruition, the Buddha has unsurpassed power of will. Due to this power, he enters into the absorption of the Arahat fruition at such little odd moments when he takes a pause between making a point in his discourse and going on to the next, during which the audience would be saying: Well done! As a matter of fact, there is not the shortest of odd moments when the Buddha does not dwell in the absorption of the Arahat fruition. ^{See the sub-commentary to the Abundance of Meaning (Aṭṭhasālinī).} This is how the Buddha has amazing control of will power in supermundane consciousness.

Eight Mundane Features of the Buddha’s Willpower

In the teaching, eight mundane features of the Buddha’s willpower are generally cited. The eight are briefly described below:

The above eight powers of the will in mundane consciousness are included in the knowledge by which supernormal powers are accomplished (iddhi-vidha-abhiññā). The Buddha stands unrivalled in this knowledge.

These eight mundane powers and the mastery in mundane willpower and supermundane willpower mentioned above together are called the first of the six exalted qualities, i.e., supremacy (issariya).

O Fortunate One! Your Arahat fruition (Arahatta-phala) consciousness is marked by the mastery of supermundane will-power, as well as the eight forms of mastery of mundane will-power, such as in turning yourself into an infinitesimal form. O Fortunate One! May this be my humble adoration to you!

2. Knowledge of the Nine Supramundane Factors (Dhamma).

This glorious quality is the knowledge of the Buddha in his unique attainment of the nine factors of the supermundane sphere: the four paths, the four fruitions and Nibbāna that destroy all defilements so completely that no faint suggestion of their presence due to past habits remains. The meaning is obvious.

Verse in adoration of the exalted quality of Dhamma:

O Steadfast One! You are imbued with the four noble paths, the four noble fruitions, and Nibbāna that destroy all the defilements, leaving not the faintest trace. O Glorious font of the Dhamma! May this be my humble adoration to you!

3. Fame and Followers (yasa).

The glorious reputation surrounding the Buddha is no empty boast, but it is true to its every detail, and well deserved. In that sense the Buddha’s reputation is pure, unadulterated and unexaggerated. There are certain personages of wide repute, deserving of them but their repute does not reach the three worlds, the human world, the Deva realm and the Brahma realm.

The reputation attributed to the Buddha is such that the achievers of non-material absorptions (arūpa-jhāna) can remain in the non-material Brahma world (arūpa-brahma) and contemplate on the nine supreme attributes of the Buddha. Since the Buddha’s fame reaches even the non-material Brahma world, it hardly needs saying that this fame spreads in the form realm and the sensuous sphere as well.

O Steadfast One! [1127] You are attributed with glorious fame spreading over the three worlds, purely deserved by you. O paragon of personal repute! May this be my humble adoration to you.

4. Splendour of Physical Perfection (sirī).

The Buddha’s glorious quality of physical perfection was such that all humans, Devas and Brahmas could never satisfy themselves in gazing at his superb appearance, for he was endowed with the 32 marks of the Great Man, as well as with the 80 lesser characteristics. Those who went to see the Buddha had to leave only because the proper time to stay before his presence had run out but they were not content with feasting their eyes on the sheer majesty of the person of the Buddha.

O Resplendent One! You are endowed with physical excellence in every aspect. That makes you the cynosure of all humans, Devas and Brahmas. O fairest of all men! May this be my humble adoration to you!

5. Accomplishment (kāma).

The Buddha accomplishes all he sets out to accomplish and the steadfast purpose, the steady effort underlying this power of accomplishment, is called kāma. Since as Bodhisatta Sumedhā, he received the assurance of being a Bodhisatta from Buddha Dīpaṅkara, he had set his mind on leading humanity to liberation: “May I become enlightened and may I be able to lead the multitudes to Awakening (Buddho bodheyyaṁ). May I attain liberation from the round of rebirth, and may I be able to lead the multitudes to liberation (mutto moceyyaṁ). May I cross over to the shore of safety and may I be able to ferry across the multitudes to the shore of safety (tiṇṇo tāreyyaṁ).”

That earnest desire, that steadfast purpose, had never waned in the Buddha. It was that purposefulness that led him to attain perfect Awakening through path and fruit, thus fulfilling his earnest desire. He had thus gained Awakening, had gained liberation from the round of rebirth, and had crossed over to the safe shore that is Nibbāna.

There are some people who may have earlier desired for the good and welfare of oneself as well as of others. But once their welfare is fulfilled, they are apt to forget about others’ welfare, or are unable to carry out their set purpose concerning others. The Buddha attaining Buddhahood was reinforced by the path-knowledge in devoting himself to his original task of helping others. This zeal was the principal cause of his accomplishment in making the multitudes see the four truths, enabling them to cross over to the safe shore of Nibbāna. Therefore the steadfast wish (adhigama-chanda) that was responsible for the glorious accomplishment of the Buddha’s mission both for himself and for others, is kāma.

O Steadfast One! You have long wished for the good of yourself as well as of others. That earnest wish has found fulfilment now. [1128] O Achieving One! May this be my humble adoration to you!

6. Diligence (payatta).

Diligence means having an unrivalled diligence. His untiring zeal in keeping up the fivefold Buddha routine earned him the love and esteem of the whole world. The right effort (sammā vayana) that entitles him to the warm regard of the whole living world is the glorious quality of diligence (payatta).

O Diligent One! You possessed right effort, that steadfastness which won the highest esteem by the whole world. O steadfast One! May this be my humble adoration to you!

The Buddha’s Attributes in a Nutshell

The attributes of the Buddha are infinite. Out of them, the nine supreme attributes are mentioned in the scriptures for easy understanding and memorizing by humans, Devas and Brahmas.

All of the Buddha’s glorious attributes can be put into two main categories:

In the first category there are two aspects,

The innate powers of the Buddha that he is invested with flow from these two sources.

In the second category of the Buddha’s attributes too, there are two aspects:

The Buddha’s acceptance of offerings of the four monastic requisites is another form of doing useful service to the supporters who thereby gain great merit. Thus the nine attributes such as being Worthy (Arahaṁ), are taught to signify the two above aspects of his own accomplishments and his service for the welfare of others.

The nine supreme attributes are read into the above two aspects in the following way: Being Worthy (Arahaṁ) clearly describes the Buddha’s success in getting rid of all defilements.

Being perfectly Self-Awakened (Sammā-sambuddho) and knowing the conditioned arising of all beings (loka-vidū) clearly describe the Buddha’s endowment of a variety of knowledges.

Being endowed with the three knowledges (vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno) completely conveys the comprehensive accomplishment of the Buddha by himself.

Being Well-gone (Sugato) proclaims both the Buddha’s accomplishment by himself and the achievement in working for the welfare of others, together with the underlying cause of both.

Being incomparable in taming those who deserve to be tamed (anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi) and being the teacher of Devas and humans (Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ) clearly demonstrate the Buddha’s achievement in bringing welfare to others.

Being the Awakened One (Buddho) brings out the meaning of accomplishment by himself as well as accomplishment for the good of others.

Being endowed with the six exalted qualities (Bhagavā) highlights both the Buddha’s accomplishment for himself and the success in bringing the welfare of others.

Considered in another light, the supreme attributes of the Buddha fall under three categories, namely:

Four attributes, viz. Worthiness (Arahaṁ), perfectly Self-Awakened (Sammā-sambuddho), endowed with the three knowledges (vijjā-caraṇa-sampanno), and knowing the conditioned arising of all beings (loka-vidū), portray the root causes of attributes that the Buddha is endowed with.

Being incomparable in taming those who deserve to be tamed (Anuttaro purisa-damma-sārathi) and being the teacher of Devas and humans (Satthā Deva-manussānaṁ) clearly describe the Buddha’s success in working for the good of others.

Being the Awakened One (Buddho) clearly points out the Buddha’s endowment of happy root cause as well as accomplishment for the good of others.

Being Well-gone (Sugato) and being endowed with the six exalted qualities (Bhagavā) reveal the endowment of the three kinds of success, i.e., in root cause, in result and in the welfare of the world. ^{See the sub-commentary to the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga), Vol. I.}

Contemplation of the Buddha

Devotees should recite these verses at a speed neither too slowly nor too fast, reflecting on its meaning. One who reflects on the attributes of the Buddha, while doing so, prevents the arising of thoughts of lust, hatred and delusion, besides gaining concentration which clears the mind of lethargy and distraction, and rendering it possible for a righteous thought-process to arise through equanimity.

When the concentration gets stronger through this meditation practice, the hindrances (nīvaraṇa) fall off, and defilements are quelled and consequently, the five faculties beginning with faith (saddhā) become very pure and effective. The repeated reflection on the Buddha sharpens initial application of the mind (vitakka) and sustained application of the mind (vicāra). When these two factors are functioning well, delightful satisfaction (pīti) arises. Due to the delightful satisfaction, serenity of mental concomitants and serenity of mind arise, as the result of which physical and mental uneasiness, which are defilements associated with subtle forms of distraction, are quelled. When there is serenity of mind and serenity of mental concomitants, happiness that causes the arising of concentration becomes pronounced. The thought-process being enriched by happiness is firmly fixed on the object of meditation.

Thus the factors involved in meditation, beginning from initial application of the mind, become more and more efficient stage by stage. The mind is neither retarded nor distracted so that the medium attitude of mental exercise or equanimity is maintained and the five [1130] faculties such as faith are functioning in a balanced way. Now, the five factors of absorption (jhāna): initial application of the mind, sustained application of the mind, delightful satisfaction, happiness and one-pointedness of mind, arise simultaneously at every thought moment with the great meritorious consciousness (mahā-kusala-citta) of the contemplation on the Buddha which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere (kāmāvacara-bhāvanā). Thus, neighbourhood concentration or access concentration (upacāra-jhāna) is achieved. When this concentration arises together with the great meritorious consciousness of the contemplation of the Buddha, which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere, the meditator is called one who has achieved access concentration based on the contemplation of the Buddha.

It might then be asked: “In contemplating the attributes of the Buddha, the names of the ultimate qualities of the nine attributes, such as Worthiness (Arahaṁ), etc. are still made objects of contemplation. Why are these names said to be ultimate qualities?” The answer is, again, that the attributes of the Buddha are so profound that, although at the initial stage of meditation, these names, such as Worthiness, are made as objects of meditation, when concentration is developed the mind passes on from mere names to ultimate reality.

Again, one might further ask: “Are not some ultimate qualities such as the first non-material consciousness (paṭhamārūpa-viññāṇa) used as an object of meditation and full absorption (appanā-jhāna), such as the second non-material absorption, achieved thereby?” That is true, but that is a case of a single object of meditation. The attributes of the Buddha are not a single object. They are a complex variety. So the comparison is not valid.

It may then be questioned: “A yogi contemplating on the 32 aspects or parts of the body, although starting with a number of them, after concentration becomes developed, fixes his mind on a single aspect or part only and achieves the first fine-material absorption (jhāna). Then why is the same process not true in the case of the contemplation of the Buddha?” This is not an appropriate analogy. For, although there are as many as 32 aspects or parts of the body, all of them have a single reality, which is loathsomeness, which truly becomes the object of meditation leading to the achievement of full absorption (appanā-jhāna). In the case of the attributes of the Buddha, they are replete with meaning in a variety of ways, and hence achievable concentration belongs only to the sensuous sphere, and only up to access (upacāra-jhāna) stage.

“Why not concentrate on only one of the nine attributes then?” The answer is: When concentration becomes developed, the attributes of the Buddha are comprehended by the yogi so that he cannot fix his mind on only one of them because his faith grows so much as to know no bounds.

Benefits of Contemplation of the Buddha

A virtuous one, who repeatedly contemplates the attributes of the Buddha, has exceptional esteem of him which is comparable to the noble ones’ devotion to him. Repeated recollection of the Buddha develops his mind such that he has a stable mindfulness. The profundity of the Buddha’s attributes, on which his mind is trained, makes him a person of profound wisdom. The nine attributes in themselves are the fertile field for sowing merit, therefore constant recollection of them is highly meritorious.

Reflection on the Buddha is a mental exercise conducive to delightful satisfaction (pīti), one of the Seven Factors of Awakening. The yogi becomes possessed of much delightful satisfaction, first of the feeble kind but, later, of an ecstatic kind. The mindfulness that dwells on the attributes of the Buddha overcomes fear, therefore the yogi becomes indifferent to fear and dread, great or small. Since this mental exercise has the nature of [1131] warding off physical pain, the yogi acquires a kind of tolerance to pain. He also feels that he is together with the Buddha. The body of one, whose mind is absorbed in the thoughts of the Buddha, is like a shrine containing the Buddha so that it becomes worthy of adoration. His mind is always inclined to Supreme Awakening.

The yogi’s mind is constantly reminded of the attributes of the Buddha with the result that any evil thought that might arise is driven away before any evil word or deed is committed, as if being shameful to do it, and being abhorrent to do it in the presence of the Buddha. Contemplation of the Buddha is a basis for gaining path and fruit. If the yogi does not gain path and fruit in this existence for want of sufficient past merit, he is reborn in the fortunate existences.

These are the benefits of contemplating the Buddha as explained in The Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga). For greater details the reader may refer to the Traditions about the Elder Monk Subhūti (Subhūtitthera-apadāna, Tha-ap 23).

The Six Supreme Attributes of the Dhamma

Svākkhāto Bhagavatā Dhammo,
sandiṭṭhiko akāliko,
ehipassiko opaneyyiko,
paccattaṁ veditabbo viññūhi.

The Dhamma has been well-proclaimed by the Fortunate One, is visible, not subject to time, inviting inspection, onward-leading, and can be understood by the wise for themselves.

1. The Dhamma, consisting of the paths, fruitions and Nibbāna and the doctrine (pariyatti) is well-proclaimed (svākkhāto) because:

2. The Dhamma, i.e., the four paths, the four fruitions and Nibbāna, is visible (sandiṭṭhiko) because it is practiced and realized by the noble ones (ariya) who have thus exhausted the defilements; and also because it is the instant destroyer of defilements, it wins the laurels of victory.

3. The Dhamma, the nine supermundane factors, is not subject to time (akāliko) because it comes to fruition immediately, in that the fruition (phala) of the path (magga) is attainable without a moment’s delay.

4. The Dhamma is inviting inspection (ehipassiko) because it is clearly visible like the majestic moon in a clear sky, free of mist, smoke, cloud, etc., or like the Manohara gem that is found on Mount Vepulla, inviting all to come and see for themselves.

5. The Dhamma is onward-leading (opaneyyiko) because the four paths serve as the raft for crossing over to the safety of Nibbāna, while the fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna bestow upon the noble ones (ariya) the realization of a safe haven.

6. The Dhamma can be understood for themselves (paccattaṁ veditabbo) because it must be realized, through individual effort, by the wise (vinnū).

Explanation of the Above Attributes

1. Well-proclaimed (svākkhāto).

In well-proclaimed (svākkhāto), Dhamma refers to the doctrine (pariyatti), the four paths, the four fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna. That is, the doctrine and the nine supermundane factors.

The doctrine (pariyatti) is excellent in the beginning, excellent in the middle and excellent at the end, because it is perfect in meaning and in words and because it proclaims the threefold training and the noble path (magga), as the pure and complete way of practice.

The doctrine (pariyatti) is perfect because even within a single verse, its first line is perfect, and therefore perfect in the beginning; its second and third lines are perfect and therefore perfect in the middle; its fourth line is perfect and therefore perfect at the end.

In a discourse, it has an introduction that makes it perfect in the beginning. It has a conclusion that makes it perfect at the end. And the middle portion, with its logical connections between various points, makes it perfect in the middle.

In a discourse consisting of a [1132] number of connected thoughts, the first connection of logical relationships is perfection in the beginning. The last connection of logical relationship is perfection at the end. The remaining logical relationships are perfection in the middle.

In another way: In the Discourse and Discipline Collections, all of the discourses mention the place where the event took place, for instance Sāvatthī, Rājagaha, etc. which is perfection in the beginning. The compatibility of the discourse with the natural bent of the hearers on that particular occasion, the incontrovertible truth contained in the meaning of the discourse, the substance, and the illustrations make the middle perfect. The benefit gained by the audience through their faith and conviction, the proper conclusion of theme, make the end perfect.

In brief, the whole of the doctrine (pariyatti-dhamma), comprising the Three Baskets (Tipiṭaka), essentially proclaim morality, concentration and insight-wisdom; the paths, fruitions (magga-phala) and Nibbāna. They pronounce the true Buddha, the true Dhamma and the true Saṅgha. They clearly prescribe the noble and correct practice that leads to Buddhahood, or Perfect Self-Awakening, the Awakening of a Paccekabuddha and the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka). Thus, the Three Baskets have intrinsic excellence in the beginning in morality; intrinsic excellence of the middle in concentration and insight-wisdom; and intrinsic excellence at the end in Nibbāna. Or taken in another light, they are excellent in the beginning through morality and concentration; excellent in the middle through insight wisdom, and the paths (magga); and excellent at the end through the fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna.

Or, put it in another way, they are excellent in the beginning by declaring the true Buddha, excellent in the middle by declaring the true Dhamma, and excellent at the end by declaring the true Saṅgha. Again, anyone, who takes up the practice as shown in the doctrine (pariyatti-dhamma) or the Three Baskets can attain any of the three classes of Awakening, and are therefore excellent in the beginning through Perfect Self-Awakening; excellent in the middle through becoming a Paccekabuddha and excellent at the end through Awakening as a disciple.

The Buddha’s doctrine requires his disciples to take two steps: The first step is for them to listen attentively with a certain faith, and the second is to take up the practice of the Dhamma. When the above steps are taken in order and the proper practise is done, a disciple attains the Arahat fruition. Therefore, in listening to the doctrine, if you have the ultimate objective of the Arahat fruition, you gain the knowledge of what has been heard (suta-maya-ñāṇa), the repeated arising of which can put away the hindrances of the mind. Hence paying good attention to the doctrine is excellent in the beginning. If you take up the practice of the Dhamma after repeatedly listening to it, you get the calm and happiness that comes with concentration (samatha-sukha), and then if pursued correctly, you gain insight into phenomena which gives you peace and satisfaction (vipassanā-sukha). Thus the practice of the Dhamma is excellent in the middle. Since proper practice leads to the Arahat fruition, the result of the practice is excellent at the end. In this way is the doctrine (pariyatti) excellent in the beginning, in the middle and at the end, and therefore it is truly acclaimed as well-proclaimed (svākkhāto).

The Buddha’s doctrine (pariyatti) clearly marks out two modes of the practice, the practice conforming to the teaching (sāsana-brahma-cariya), and the noble practice of the path (magga-brahma-cariya). Of those two, the first refers ordinarily to the threefold training and kindred teachings while the second refers to the very essence of the threefold training and the successful measure of the threefold training: the noble path (ariya-magga). In teaching these two modes of the practice, the Buddha defined the noble practice in terms of the deepest significance in meaning. For instance, if a religious teacher were to give emphasis on such mundane words as gruel, rice, or men or women, these terms do not have any intrinsic value that can lead to the ending of the suffering of the round of existence. So such words do not carry any significant meaning from a truly religious point of view. The Buddha rejects giving emphasis on these mundane terms but expounds the four foundations of steadfast mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna), the four earnest endeavours (sammappadhāna), etc. in detail which have the effect of gaining release from the round of [1133] existences. Thus, the doctrine (pariyatti) defines the noble practice in these significant absolute terms, replete with profound meaning.

The doctrine expounded by the Buddha is perfect because it contains the five qualities: morality, concentration, wisdom, emancipation and insight leading to emancipation so that there is no essential thing or no other element to add to it.

Again, the doctrine expounded by the Buddha is perfect in the sense that there is nothing that is harmful and is to be discarded, for it has no trace of the defiling things such as wrong views or conceit, but is purely productive of liberation from the suffering round of existences. In another sense, there is no flaw whatsoever in this doctrine, since it is not something that is delivered to anyone with an eye on material gain or for fame and applause. Therefore, it is pure in all aspects.

Thus the doctrine taught by the Buddha is truly well expounded (svākkhāta) because of its perfection in meaning, in words and phrases, and by its very nature it is perfectly pure, laying down the practice of purity in its twofold modes. [1134]

Taken in yet another light, the doctrine taught by the Buddha is well-expounded because it does not deviate from what is claimed for it. Consider this: Holders of doctrines other than the Buddha’s, preach about impediments which are not truly impediments, and their words about emancipation are not productive of emancipation. Hence, their doctrines deviate from what is claimed for it, and are therefore not well-expounded, but ill-expounded.

The veracity of the Buddha’s doctrine is never called in question. What the Buddha declares as impediments to the attainment of absorption (jhāna), paths (magga), fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna are truly impediments. What the Buddha declares as factors conducive to emancipation are truly so. Nowhere does the doctrine deviate from its avowed claims. That is why the doctrine is truly well-expounded (svākkhāto).

The above two interpretations of the attribute of well-expounded is all the more remarkable when they are seen in association with the four kinds of perfect self-confidence of the Buddha (catu-vesārajja-ñāṇa). The commentaries usually relate well-expounded to these four factors or knowledges. The four are given below.

The Four Kinds of Perfect Self-Confidence

1. That being so, there is no one who can challenge the Buddha on good grounds saying: “You claim to be omniscient, but you do not know such and such a thing.” And there is indeed not a single thing that the Buddha does not know, that would provide good grounds for anyone to make such a challenge. Knowing himself thus unassailable, the Buddha has perfect self-confidence that his attainment of Perfect Awakening is truly perfect; and this self-confidence gives him great delightful satisfaction coupled with the reviewing knowledge of his own attainment. This is the first kind of perfect self-confidence dependent on his successful knowledge.

2. Likewise, there is no one who can question the Buddha’s claim about purity. No one can challenge him, on good grounds saying: “You claim to be completely pure, yet you still have such and such an impurity or defilement.” For there is indeed no defilement that the Buddha has not rid himself of that would provide good reasons for anyone to make such a challenge. Knowing himself thus unassailable, the Buddha has perfect self-confidence that his purity is truly perfect; and this self-confidence gives him great delightful satisfaction coupled with the reviewing knowledge of his purity. This is the second kind of perfect self-confidence dependent on his successful abandoning of defilements.

3. Likewise, there is no one who can challenge the Buddha, on good grounds, saying: “The factors that you declare to be obstructions against going to the good destinations, to the absorptions (jhāna), paths (magga), fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna, have no obstructing effects on those who resort to them.” For there is indeed no impediment he taught that fails to obstruct the achievement of due results in the practice of the Dhamma. Knowing himself thus unassailable, the Buddha has perfect self-confidence that what he has declared to be impediments are truly impediments to the noble practice; and this self-confidence gives him great delightful satisfaction coupled with the reviewing knowledge of his own doctrine. This is the third kind of perfect self-confidence dependent on his special accomplishment in imparting [1135] knowledge.

4. Likewise, there is no one who can challenge the Buddha, on good grounds, saying: “The factors that you declare to be leading to emancipation from the suffering of the round of existences, do not lead to emancipation of those who take up these factors.” For there is no factor of emancipation he taught that does not bring emancipation to the diligent. Knowing himself thus unassailable, the Buddha has perfect self-confidence that what he has declared to be emancipating factors are truly emancipatory; and this self-confidence gives him great delightful satisfaction coupled with the reviewing knowledge of his own doctrine. This is the fourth kind of perfect self-confidence dependent on the peaceful security of the Dhamma.

The above four kinds of perfect self-confidence of the Buddha are called the four kinds of perfect self-confidence (vesārajja-ñāṇa). Of these four, the first two go to prove the fact that the doctrine expounded by the Buddha is well-expounded in that it is excellent in the beginning, in the middle and at the end. It is perfect in meaning and in wording. It need not be either added to or expunged. It is perfectly pure in its prescription of the noble practice in its two modes, which is the first interpretation of well-expounded (svakkhāto) above.

The remaining two substantiate the fact that the doctrine is well-expounded because whatever are declared as impeding factors are truly impediments and also because whatever are declared as contributory factors to emancipation are truly emancipatory, which is the second interpretation above. This is how the doctrine (pariyatti) is well-expounded (svākkhāto).

The supermundane is well expounded in that it leads to Nibbāna through the practice of the four paths declared by the Buddha thus: “This is the correct practice, the way to Nibbāna, and this is the Nibbāna that is attainable by this practice.” This is how paths and Nibbāna are well expounded.

Of the three aspects of the supermundane, i.e., paths (magga), fruitions (phala) and Nibbāna, the noble path (ariya-magga) is well expounded, in that it avoids the two extremes and steers the middle course as the correct practice. The fruition (phala) of the path (magga), i.e., the ordinary fruitions attained by a noble one (ariya), which are four in number, are the factors where no burning defilements exist. And the declaration of this truth that: “The four fruits are the factors where no burning defilements remain,” is the attribute of its being well-expounded. Nibbāna is permanent, deathless, the ultimate, unconditioned element and this Nibbāna which is declared by the Buddha in terms of permanence, deathlessness, etc., is the attribute of its being well-expounded. This is how path (magga), fruition (phala) and Nibbāna, the supermundane factors, are well-expounded (svākkhāto).

2. Visible (sandiṭṭhika).

This attribute only relates to the supermundane self (saṁ), the truth realizable (diṭṭha) by the noble ones (ariya). All nobles, be it a Stream-enterer, or a Once Returner, or a Non-returner, having destroyed the various defilements, each according to his status, have no wish of harming themselves or harming others, or harming both because they are not subject to defilements such as passion (rāga). Therefore, they have no bodily pain. Since the defilements are extinct, they are free from mental pain. On pondering over this bodily and mental ease, the noble one (ariya) perceives that his freedom from physical and mental troubles is due to the absence of the defilements, such as passion which he has destroyed through path-knowledge. He knows it from personal experience and not from hearsay. Thus, the noble path (ariya-magga) is visible by the noble one (ariya) from his own experience, i.e., it is visible (sandiṭṭhika).

Explained in another way, the noble one (ariya) through the path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) attained by him, experiences its fruition or (phala-ñāṇa) and realizes Nibbāna. Just as a person with good eyesight can see visible objects, so also the noble one, by means of his reviewing knowledge (paccavekkhaṇā) sees his own paths, its fruitions, and Nibbāna. Thus the whole of the nine factors of the supermundane are said to be visible by the noble ones (ariya) from their own experience, hence it is visible (sandiṭṭhika). [1136]

Another interpretation: Self (saṁ), that which is extolled (diṭṭha), through path-knowledge; the Dhamma that overcomes the defilements. As we say “the king who conquers his enemies by means of his chariot,” so also it is through path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) which is the condition, that he overcomes the defilements. Nibbāna, through path-knowledge which makes it its mind-object, overcomes the defilements. Thus all the nine factors of the supermundane, through path-knowledge which is worthy to be extolled, overcome the defilements, and are visible (sandiṭṭhika).

Yet another interpretation: When the nine supermundane factors are fully comprehended through a good grasp of mental cultivation and realization, and through the reviewing knowledge, then the whole set of factors that constitute the vicious circle of rebirths fall away completely. Remember how the noble ones (ariya) make an end of suffering (dukkha) by uprooting all defilements through clear comprehension of the nine supermundane factors. Here the interpretation is: “That the nine supermundane factors are worthy of comprehending.”

Sandiṭṭhaṁ arahatī tī sandiṭṭhiko; saṁ diṭṭhaṁ, “comprehension,” arahati, “is worthy or worthwhile,” iti, “means,” sandiṭṭhiko, “visible.” The supermundane is worthwhile comprehending by anyone who means to make an end of suffering (dukkha). The supermundane is therefore indispensable for those who wish to break the bonds of the suffering round of existences. There is no other way to attain emancipation. Hence the supermundane is truly visible (sandiṭṭhika).

3. Not subject to time (akālika).

This attribute relates only to the noble path. Refer to the meaning not subject to time (akāliko) given above. The noble path fructifies without delay, and so it is timeless in bringing benefit. Consider mundane merit and its benefit which must take a day or at least a few hours to fructify, even if it is the type of merit bearing fruit in the present. With the supermundane Noble Path, it is not so. No time elapses between the arising of path-knowledge (magga-ñāṇa) and the fruition-knowledge (phala-ñāṇa). The path-knowledge gives rise to the fruition-knowledge immediately. Hence the supermundane path is timeless (akālika) in its fruition.

The important point to note, in respect of this attribute, is that according to Abhidhamma, in a path thought-process, path consciousness arises for just one thought-moment, after which, not a wink intervenes before fruition consciousness arises, which is the fruition of the path-knowledges. A noble one (ariya) who attains path is a “path-attainer” just for a single thought-moment after which he is a “fruition-attainer” in no time. This is because the thought-process of the arising of the path and its fruition come in a continuous uninterrupted flow.

4. Inviting inspection (ehipassiko).

The nine supermundane factors are real things in the ultimate sense. They exist in truth and reality. They are beautiful things because they are pure, not defiled by mental taints. They are worth inspection. “Come, see for yourself, experience it yourself! Try it out yourself!” They seem to be inviting. For example, if you have nothing worthwhile in hand to show, such as a piece of gold or silver, you cannot invite others: “Come and see what is here.” Again, if you have something horrible or detestable in hand, such as excreta, you cannot gladly invite others to come and see it. Rather, something detestable or impure is only kept hidden and is not displayed.

The nine supermundane factors are real things in the ultimate sense. They are like the full disc of the moon in a clear sky, or like a big ruby placed on a white velvet cloth. These factors are stainless, spotless and perfectly pure. They are therefore worth inspection, worth appreciation. They invite anyone to testify for himself their presence and their true worth. [1137]

5. Onward-leading (opaneyyiko).

Worldlings do not have the experience of the supermundane. Their mind has never attained path-consciousness and fruition-consciousness. Therefore, they have never realized Nibbāna. It is just because they have never attained path-consciousness and fruition-consciousness and never realized Nibbāna that they wallow in the mire of the suffering round of existences endlessly. If the lowest level of the supermundane knowledge, as Stream-entry, is attained, if Stream-entry consciousness has ever arisen in one, the yogi, as a noble one, has realized Nibbāna as clearly and unmistakably as he has seen something with his own eyes. Once this realization has taken place, he can make an end of all the suffering round of rebirths (dukkha) in the seven further existences in the fortunate destinations at the utmost.

On one occasion, the Buddha placed a pinch of dirt on his finger-nail and said to the monastics: “Monastics, which is greater, this pinch of dirt on my finger-nail or the great earth?” And the monastics replied: “Venerable sir, the dirt on the finger-nail is infinitesimal; the great earth is far greater, beyond comparison.”

“Similarly, monastics,” said the Buddha, “the number of existences that have been prevented from arising by Stream-entry (Sotāpatti-magga), by a noble one (ariya), is as great as the great earth. The number of existences that remain to arise for him is as little as the pinch of dirt on my finger-nail, there are only seven at the most.”

Thus the supermundane factors have the effect of cutting down the lives in Saṁsāra into a few further existences only, with the ultimate effect of total release from Saṁsāra, according to the attainment of each individual; that being so, a virtuous one, wishing to make an end of suffering, should give top priority to gaining the paths and fruitions. Even if one’s head be on fire, the extinguishing of the fire is not such a matter of urgency as the gaining of path-knowledge because fire on the head can destroy the present life only whereas, the fire of defilements within can cause endless trouble throughout Saṁsāra. The supermundane should be borne in mind diligently until path-knowledge with its fruition is attained. Nibbāna should be made the mind-object with diligence. Thus, the nine supermundane factors are worthy of being constantly borne in one’s mind because they are onward-leading (opaneyyiko).

6. Understood by themselves (paccattaṁ veditabbo).

Under this attribute, three types of noble ones (ariya) should be noted, namely:

All three types, after attaining the path, know for themselves that they have taken up the noble practice, that they have attained the paths, the fruitions, and have realized Nibbāna through their own experience. For the eradication of defilements is to be accomplished directly by oneself. A close disciple cannot discard his defilements through the attainment of the path by his master. Nor can he dwell in the fruition of the path through the attainment of the fruition by his master. Neither can he make Nibbāna his own mind-object through the master’s making Nibbāna his mind-object. Only by the attainment of the path by one’s own self, can one get rid of the defilements within oneself. Dwelling in fruition is possible only when one has attained the fruition-knowledge for oneself. Nibbāna also is likewise a matter for direct experience, and not realizable through another’s experience. Thus, the nine supermundane factors are not to be considered as ornaments that adorn other people and have no real benefit to oneself but are only the property of the noble ones (ariya) who enjoy them. Since they pertain to the wise, these factors are beyond the pale of fools. Thus the nine supermundane factors are the property of the noble ones (ariya) who alone can realize them in their own minds and enjoy them (paccattaṁ veditabbo). [1138]

Contemplation of the Dhamma

The yogi who wishes to contemplate the Dhamma should commit to memory the six attributes of the Dhamma in both Pāḷi and in translation. He should recite each of them at a speed neither too slow nor too fast, and reflect on its meaning. One who reflects on the attributes of the Dhamma, while doing so, prevents the arising of thoughts of lust, hatred and delusion, besides gaining concentration which clears the mind of lethargy and distraction, and rendering it possible for a righteous thought-process to arise through equanimity.

As the concentration gets stronger through this meditation practice, the hindrances fall off and consequently the defilements are quelled. The five faculties, such as faith, become very pure and effective. The repeated reflection on the Dhamma sharpens the initial application of the mind (vitakka) and sustained application (vicāra) of the mind. When these two factors are functioning well, delightful satisfaction (pīti) arises. Due to the delightful satisfaction, serenity of mental concomitants and serenity of mind arise, as the result of which, physical and mental uneasiness are stilled. When there is serenity of mind and serenity of mental concomitants, happiness (sukha) that causes the arising of concentration becomes pronounced. The thought-process being enriched by happiness is firmly fixed on the object of meditation, the Dhamma.

Thus the factors involved in meditation beginning from initial application of the mind become more and more efficient stage by stage. The mind is neither lethargic nor distracted so that equanimity of meditative practice is maintained and the five faculties, such as faith (saddhā), are functioning in harmony. The five factors of absorption (jhāna): initial application of the mind, sustained application of the mind, delightful satisfaction, happiness and one-pointedness of mind, arise simultaneously at every thought-moment with the great meritorious consciousness through the contemplation of the Dhamma which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere. Thus, neighbourhood concentration or access concentration (upacāra-jhāna) is achieved. When this concentration arises together with the great meritorious consciousness of the contemplation of the Dhamma, which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere, the yogi is called one who has achieved access concentration via the contemplation of the Dhamma.

A yogi, who contemplates the Dhamma repeatedly, is imbued with the intrinsic value of the Dhamma, in its being worthy of constant companionship so much so that he feels a deep sense of awe and gratitude towards the Buddha, the fount of the Dhamma. For, this Dhamma propounded was never by any other teacher, except a Buddha. Thus, through the habitual contemplation of the Dhamma, one naturally becomes devoted to the Buddha, exceeding devotion to any other person. Therefore, his devotion to the Buddha is comparable to that of the noble one. He gains a stable mindfulness, a profound wisdom, and much merit. He becomes possessed of much delightful satisfaction, first of the feeble kind but later, of an ecstatic kind. He becomes indifferent to fearful things, great or small. He becomes tolerant of pain. He feels that he is in the company of the Dhamma. The body of one whose mind is steeped in the Dhamma is like a shrine worth paying homage. His mind is always inclined to and desirous of attaining the nine supermundane factors. Being constantly aware of the attributes of the Dhamma, he is incapable of allowing himself to commit evil, through shame and dread to do it, whenever occasion for it arises. Contemplation of the Dhamma is a sure basis for gaining the paths and fruitions. If the yogi does not attain the paths and fruitions in this existence for want of sufficient past merit, he is reborn in the fortunate abodes. These are the benefits of contemplating the Dhamma.

A special point to note: The commentary says that of the six attributes of the Dhamma, only the first one, well-proclaimed (svākkhāta), [1139] relates to the doctrine as expounded by the Buddha, and that the remaining five relate to the nine supermundane factors.

The sub-commentary to the Path to Purification (Visuddhi-magga) discusses this matter in another light which is briefly reproduced below: Although the commentary says that in specific terms the five attributes beginning with being visible (sandiṭṭhika) belong to the supermundane, they can also be considered as belonging to the doctrine (pariyatti-dhamma) on the following grounds: A wise person, who is learned, who has memorized much Pāḷi, who is of very stable mindfulness, can perceive the doctrine as being excellent in the beginning, the middle, and the end and so the doctrine is visible (sandiṭṭhika), as visible (sandiṭṭhika) is defined as it conquers other doctrines through being visible (sandiṭṭhiyā jayatī ti sandiṭṭhiko), as the knowledge of the doctrine can be a tool to conquer the believers of other doctrines, it is specifically visible (sandiṭṭhika).

In conquering the defilements, knowledge of the doctrine is a contributing factor and so the doctrine is by inference visible (sandiṭṭhika); or, as another definition puts it: Sandiṭṭhaṁ arahatī ti sandiṭṭhiko, “it is evidently worthy, therefore it is visible.” The doctrine has been expounded to clear away all defiling factors and directed at the promotion of purely meritorious factors, it is therefore worthy to be studied closely to gain perception. Hence it is visible (sandiṭṭhika).

Since the doctrine is the true condition for the attainment of the supermundane path, which may be realized at all times, it is not subject to time (akālika), considered from the point of probable result.

The doctrine itself is real and is perfectly pure. So it also is open to inspection and can invite the world to come and see it, to learn it, and to examine it. Hence it is also inviting inspection (ehipassika).

Being replete with these attributes, the doctrine is worthy of being constantly borne in mind by the wise who wish to make an end of suffering (dukkha). Therefore it is onward-leading (opaneyyika).

One who studies the doctrine with a mind intent on becoming an Arahat will get delightful satisfaction both on account of its excellence in language and excellence in meaning. This quality of giving delightful satisfaction to the wise individually, according to their capacity, is truly because it can be understood by the wise for themselves (paccattaṁ veditabbo).

This is the explanation given in the sub-commentary to the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga) about how the five later attributes of the Dhamma can also belong to the doctrine.

The Nine Supreme Attributes of the Saṅgha

Suppaṭipanno Bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho,
ujuppaṭipanno Bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho,
ñāyappaṭipanno Bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho,
sāmīcippaṭipanno Bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho.

Yad-idaṁ cattāri purisayugāni, aṭṭha-purisa puggalā,
esa Bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho

āhuneyyo pāhuneyyo

dakkhiṇeyyo añjalīkaraṇīyo

anuttaraṁ puññakhettaṁ lokassa.

The Fortunate One’s Saṅgha of disciples are good in their practice, the Fortunate One’s Saṅgha of disciples are straight in their practice, the Fortunate One’s Saṅgha of disciples are systematic in their practice, the Fortunate One’s Saṅgha of disciples are correct in their practice, that is to say, the four pairs of persons, the eight individual persons, this is the Fortunate One’s Saṅgha of disciples, they are worthy of offerings, of hospitality, of gifts, and of reverential salutation, they are an unsurpassed field of merit for the world.

1. The Saṅgha of the disciples of the Buddha, the eight classes of the noble Saṅgha (ariya-saṅgha) take up the monastic practice well and hence are good in their practice (suppaṭipanna).

2. The Saṅgha of the noble disciples of the Buddha are endowed with straight-forward uprightness (ujuppaṭipanna) because they follow the straight and middle way.

3. The Saṅgha of the noble disciples of the Buddha strive to attain Nibbāna, hence they are systematic in their practice (ñāyappaṭippanna).

4. The Saṅgha of the noble disciples of the Buddha are endowed with correctness of practice, being ashamed to do evil and they abhor evil, being always mindful, and controlling their conduct, even being prepared to die rather than lose morality, hence they are correct in their practice (sāmīcippaṭipanna).

The disciples of the Buddha, the noble Saṅgha (ariya-saṅgha) consisting of the eight categories of disciples in four pairs. These really great persons:

5. Are worthy of receiving offerings brought even from afar (āhuneyya),

6. Are worthy of receiving offerings specially set aside for special guests (pāhuneyya), [1140]

7. Are worthy of receiving offerings made for the sake of Nibbāna (dakkhiṇeyya),

8. Are worthy of receiving obeisance by the three worlds (añjalīkaraṇīya),

9. Are the incomparably fertile soil for all to sow the seed of merit in (puññakkhettaṁ lokassa).

Miscellaneous Notes

The eight classes of noble ones (ariya) are the Saṅgha of disciples (sāvaka-saṅgha) in their true meaning. However, the virtuous monastics are also called, in an extended meaning, the Saṅgha of disciples since they also follow the teaching of the Buddha obediently. The word disciple (sāvaka) is defined as: Sakkaccaṁ suṇantī ti sāvakā, “they listen to the teaching respectfully, therefore they are disciples.” Here, “to listen respectfully” means to live up to the teaching that will lead to them becoming Arahats. According to this definition, only noble ones (ariya) are a Saṅgha of disciples in the true sense and worldlings are called a Saṅgha of disciples as an extended meaning.

The Saṅgha are of the same moral standard. Hence Saṅgha in the true sense refers only to noble ones (ariya). This is because noble ones have their morality based on the path (magga) and are of the same purity, just as gold bullion cut in two equal pieces are of equal value.

In the nine attributes of the Saṅgha, the first four beginning with good in their practice (suppaṭipanna) are the conditions that have the five latter ones as consequence.

The four attributes are in fact not four different kinds of practice: If the right practice which is shown as the noble path (ariya-magga) is carried out, all four attributes are accomplished at once.

This is because the Buddha’s teaching, in the last analysis, is right practice as a constituent of the noble path. It is this right practice that was presented to the multitudes over the 45 years of the Buddha’s mission in a multitude of ways to suit the natural bent of the hearer. Thus the right practice is the Buddha’s true message, the essential feature of his entire teaching. One who follows the right practice is one who is good in their practice (suppaṭipanno puggalo).

1. The Saṅgha of the disciples of the Buddha are endowed with good practice because they follow the right practice.

2. The right practice, which is a constituent of the Noble Path, has the quality of destroying the opposing factors which are defilements. Therefore, the right-practice is the practice that is unfailing and straight. The Saṅgha of the disciples of the Buddha who follow the right practice are therefore called the noble ones who are endowed with the straight practice.

3. The systematic practice, which is a constituent of the noble path, is the practice that does not go against Nibbāna, but is in conformity with Nibbāna. The Saṅgha of the disciples who take upon themselves the systematic practice that conforms to Nibbāna, that is not against Nibbāna, are endowed with the systematic practice leading to Nibbāna.

4. The correct practice, which is a constituent of the noble path, is the practice that is in conformity with the nine supermundane factors, and is therefore called the correct practice, the practice that conforms to the Dhamma. Hence the Saṅgha is endowed with correctness of practice.

Of the eight categories of noble ones (ariya), the four who are established in path-knowledge, are endowed with the above four aspects of the right practice, which is a constituent of the noble path. The four who are established in the fruition knowledge are endowed with the above right practice in the sense that it was through that right practice that they now enjoy the fruition of the path and Nibbāna. [1141]

Further Explanation

1. The noble Saṅgha (ariya-saṅgha) take upon themselves the doctrine and discipline as taught by the Buddha. This is taking up the true practice, the faultless practice. Hence they are endowed with the good practice.

2. The Saṅgha takes up the eight constituents of the path and thereby steer the middle course, avoiding the two extremes of sense-gratification and self-mortification. This practice is also straight, without the slightest deviation or crookedness, in any examples of the three examples of crookedness. Hence they are endowed with the straight practice.

3. Nibbāna is penetrable only by path-knowledge and fruition-knowledge. Since the Saṅgha strives for realizing knowledge (ñāṇa), they are systematic in the practice leading to Nibbāna.

4. Worshipping, welcoming, raising joined palms by way of obeisance and offerings of the four monastic requisites are acts of veneration called correct (sāmīci-kamma).

Devas and men perform these acts of veneration towards the Saṅgha, having regard for the morality, concentration and wisdom of the Saṅgha. Anyone, lacking in morality, concentration and wisdom, does not deserve veneration. As for the Saṅgha of the disciples of the Buddha, the taking up of the right practice which is the noble path, endows them with morality, concentration and wisdom as the necessary threefold training. And so they deserve veneration. Since they conduct themselves to be worthy of veneration through their noble practice, they are endowed with correct practice (sāmīcippaṭipanna). These four attributes are the conditions for their homage worthiness.

The Eight Categories of Ariyas in Four Pairs

Those four pairs, making eight categories of noble ones (ariya), being endowed with the four attributes as conditions, such as good practice, are entitled to the five noble privileges such as being worthy of offerings (āhuneyya) which also are their attributes as consequences.

5. They are worthy of offerings (āhuneyya). Grammatical analysis: ā, even brought from afar; huna, the four requisites as offerings; eyya, entitled to receive. The noble Saṅgha (ariya-saṅgha) can, on account of their four attributes such as good practice (suppaṭipanna) bestow great merit to the supporters who offer them the four monastic requisites. Therefore, if the supporter has these articles ready to offer when the noble Saṅgha goes for alms collection, he should offer them gladly. If those articles are not at hand, he should try and procure them even from afar and offer them. Those articles brought from afar and offered are called āhuna. The noble Saṅgha who are endowed with the four conditions are entitled to receive those offerings brought from afar and more so because in accepting them, the supporters earn great merit. Therefore the noble Saṅgha is possessed of the attribute of being worthy of offerings (āhuneyya).

Another interpretation: ā; even brought from afar; huneyya, worthy to be offered the four monastic requisites. The noble Saṅgha can bestow much merit on the supporter because they are endowed with the four noble conditions. Therefore the supporter, wishing to gain much merit, should make offerings not only when the Saṅgha goes to them on alms collection, but should go and make offerings to the Saṅgha at their monastery which may necessitate a [1142] long journey. The four requisites that are offered after making a journey for that purpose are called āhuna. The noble Saṅgha deserves to receive such offerings on account of the four conditions that they are endowed with. In this sense also the noble Saṅgha are possessed of being worthy of offerings (āhuneyya).

Still another interpretation: The noble Saṅgha is endowed with being worthy of offerings (āhuneyya) because they deserve to receive offerings from Sakka, the Lord of the Devas, and such powerful personages. Taken in another light, in the Brahmin tradition, they keep a sacrificial fire called āhavanīya, which has the same meaning as āhuneyyo. They believe that, if they feed butter to this fire as offering, they earn much merit. If the offering to the sacrificial fire brings merit, and is thus called āhavanīya, the noble Saṅgha, who can bestow greater merit to the supporter, are truly worthy of offerings (āhuneyya). For the so-called āhavanīya of the Brahmins do not bring any real benefit: the butter that they feed the sacrificial fire just gets consumed and becomes ash. The noble Saṅgha, being possessed of the four noble attributes as condition, unfailingly bestow much merit to the supporter, and are truly worthy of offerings (āhuneyya). Note this verse (Dhp 107):

Yo ca vassa-sataṁ jantu, aggiṁ paricare vane,
ekañ-ca bhāvitattānaṁ, muhuttam-api pūjaye,
sāyeva pūjanā seyyo, yañ-ce vassa-sataṁ hutaṁ.

One may tend the sacrificial fire in the forest for one hundred years, one may, on the other hand, make offerings reverentially just once to those noble ones who dwell in insight-meditation. This offering is indeed of greater benefit than one hundred years of tending the sacrificial fire.

The above verse brings out the significance of being worthy of offerings (āhuneyyo), an attribute of the noble Saṅgha.

6. They are worthy of hospitality (pāhuneyyo). Guests who visit you from all the various quarters are called pāhuna. Gifts and offerings such as food, made ready for them are also called pāhuna. In this context the second meaning applies. Pāhuna, gifts and offerings meant for guests; eyya, deserve to receive. Gifts and offerings set aside for guests should be offered to the Saṅgha, if the Saṅgha visits your place, guests come only next to the Saṅgha. The Saṅgha deserve top priority because they are endowed with the four attributes discussed above. That indeed is so because, however important one’s guests may be, the noble Saṅgha appear in the world only when the Buddha appears. And the arising of a Buddha is very rare. Further, the Saṅgha are so imbued with noble qualities that they are a source of pleasure, and are the incomparable friend or relative that calls at your door. For these reasons the Saṅgha are entitled to receive hospitality meant for one’s valued guests (pāhuneyya).

7. They are worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇeyya): Dakkhaṇti etāya sattā yathādhippetāhi sampattīhi vaḍḍhantī ti dakkhiṇā, “the volition, through which beings are blessed with whatever they wish to have or to be, is called being worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇā).” ^{See the sub-commentary to the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga).} This means that the gift or offering made with a view for future well-being is called being worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇā). If someone does not believe in the hereafter, if he holds an annihilist view, then he will not make offerings for future well-being.

According to the Buddha’s doctrine, Arahats such as the Buddha and his Arahat disciples, having eradicated ignorance and craving for existence, which are the root causes of the round of existences, will not be reborn in a new existence. Until the two root causes have been eradicated, rebirth is inevitable, however much one holds an annihilist view. Just as a [1143] tree whose tap roots are not cut off will remain growing and bear fruit, but when its tap roots are completely cut off it cannot thrive and cannot bear fruit, so also ignorance and craving for existence must be understood as the tap roots of rebirth. All worldlings, Stream-enterers, Once-returners, Non-returners will have rebirth because these two tap roots have not been completely destroyed. Only on becoming Arahats are the two tap roots completely destroyed and rebirth is stopped.

Only one who does not hold the wrong view of annihilism believes in the afterlife. Only when existence after death is believed in, will there be alms giving for one’s own well-being in future existences. Only when volitional acts of giving are done, can there be the fulfilment of whatever one may aspire to as the result. Thus, any act of giving with the belief in its good result in future existences is called being worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇā). Therefore a worthy gift means an object that is given, motivated by the belief in a future benefit.

The noble Saṅgha can make that object of offering efficacious as is desired by the supporter because they are endowed with the four supreme attributes mentioned above. In that sense, they deserve to receive offerings that are called worthy (dakkhiṇā). Hence they are possessed of the noble attribute of being worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇeyya).

Another interpretation: The noble Saṅgha purify the object that is being offered (dakkhiṇā) in the sense that they bestow the merit on it through their nobility. Dakkhiṇāya hito dakkhiṇeyyo, “the noble Saṅgha bestow merit on the offering.” This is another meaning by which the attribute of being worthy of gifts (dakkhiṇeyya) may be understood.

8. They are worthy of reverential salutation (añjali-karaṇīyo). Being endowed with the four noble qualities based on their right practice, the noble Saṅgha is worthy of reverential salutation. The term for this attribute is defined as those wishing to earn merit pay obeisance to these eight noble ones (ariya), hence the noble Saṅgha is worthy of reverential salutation (añjalī-karaṇīyā etthā ti añjali-karaṇīyo).

9. They are an unsurpassed field of merit for the world (anuttaraṁ puññakkhettaṁ lokassa): Unsurpassed (anuttaraṁ); there is no better field for sowing merit than the noble Saṅgha (atthi ito uttaran-ti anuttaraṁ). Although by definition “there is no better field than the noble Saṅgha,” but, in fact there is not even any field of merit equal to the noble Saṅgha. Hence this attribute has been rendered as “unsurpassed field of merit for the world.”

Field (khetta) means a field for the cultivation of crops. Field of merit (puñña-khetta) means a field where merit is cultivated, a metaphor for the noble Saṅgha. Just as a field nurtures the seeds sown in it, so also the noble Saṅgha nurtures the seeds of good deeds sown in them. Here the Saṅgha nurtures the good deeds of the supporters through the morality, concentration and wisdom which are like the nutrients of the soil. Thus the noble Saṅgha bestows great merit to the good deeds done towards them, and are called the field that nurtures the seeds of merit.

A field where the king sows his seeds is called the king’s field. Likewise, the noble Saṅgha where all the three worlds sow their seeds of merit is called the unsurpassed field where the whole world sows their seeds of merit (anuttaraṁ puññakkhettaṁ lokassa).

Contemplation of the Saṅgha

The yogi who wishes to contemplate the Saṅgha should commit to memory the nine attributes of the Saṅgha in Pāḷi and its translation as given above. He should recite each of them, such as good in their practice (suppaṭipanno), at a speed that is neither too slow nor too fast, reflecting on its meaning. One who reflects on the attributes of the Saṅgha, while doing so, prevents the arising of thoughts of lust, hatred and delusion, besides gaining concentration which clears the mind of lethargy and distraction, and rendering it possible for a righteous thought-process to arise through equanimity. [1144]

As the concentration gets stronger through this meditation practice, the hindrances fall off and consequently the defilements are quelled. The five faculties, such as faith (saddhā), become very pure and effective. The repeated reflection on the Saṅgha sharpens the initial application of the mind and the sustained application of the mind. When these two factors are functioning well, delightful satisfaction arises. Due to the delightful satisfaction, serenity of mental concomitants and serenity of mind arise, as the result of which, physical and mental uneasiness are stilled. When there is serenity of mind and mental concomitants, happiness that causes the arising of concentration becomes pronounced. The thought-process, being enriched by happiness, is firmly fixed on the object of meditation, the Saṅgha.

Thus, the factors involved in meditation, beginning with initial application of the mind, become more and more efficient stage by stage. The mind is neither lethargic nor distracted so that the medium attitude in mental exercise is maintained and the five faculties, such as faith, are functioning in harmony. The five factors of absorption (jhāna): initial application of the mind, sustained application of the mind, delightful satisfaction, happiness and one-pointedness of mind, arise simultaneously at every thought moment with the great meritorious consciousness of the contemplation of the Saṅgha which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere. Thus access concentration (upacāra-jhāna) is achieved. When this concentration arises together with the great meritorious consciousness of the contemplation of the Saṅgha, which is mental cultivation pertaining to the sensuous sphere, the yogi is called one who has achieved access concentration via the contemplation of the Saṅgha.

The Benefits of Contemplating the Saṅgha

The virtuous one, who repeatedly contemplates the Saṅgha, becomes exceptionally devoted to the Saṅgha comparable to the noble ones’ devotion to the Saṅgha. He gains a stable mindfulness, a profound wisdom, and much merit. He becomes possessed of delightful satisfaction, at first of the feeble kind, but later of an ecstatic kind. He becomes indifferent to fearful things, great or small. He becomes tolerant to pain. He feels that he is always in the company of the Saṅgha. His mind is always ennobled by the awareness of the attributes of the Saṅgha so that his body is like the boundary halls (sīma) where the Saṅgha are being assembled, and therefore is worthy of veneration. His mind is bent on acquiring the attributes of the Saṅgha. Being constantly aware of the attributes of the Saṅgha, he feels like he is in the very presence of the Saṅgha and is incapable of committing any evil, through shame and dread to do it, whenever occasion for it arises. Making the contemplation of the Saṅgha as the bases, one may, after gaining concentration, meditate for gaining insight into conditioned phenomena with facility and succeed in it. If he does not attain path and fruit in this existence for want of sufficient past merit, he is reborn in the fortunate existences. These are the benefits of contemplating the Saṅgha. ^{[Five sections on the various attributes of the Buddha are moved from here to the Further Explanations.]}