Supplement to IX
Bodhisatta Gotama’s Lives
[Previously this formed the end of chapter IX, but it seems placed better here, in the Further Explanations.]
Bodhisatta Gotama received the prediction from the 24 Buddhas from Dīpaṅkara to Kassapa. His lives, in which the prophecy was declared, may be classified as follows.
Five Lives as a Recluse
1. He received the first definite prophecy as the recluse Sumedha from Buddha Dīpaṅkara, he heard the same prophecy as:
2. Jaṭila the recluse, from Buddha Nārada.
3. Susīma the recluse, from Buddha Atthadassī.
4. Maṅgala the recluse, from Buddha Siddhattha.
5. Sujāta the recluse, from Buddha Tissa.
Nine Lives as a Monk
The event occurred when he was born:
1. As the Universal Monarch Vijitāvī, and later became a monk (bhikkhu) in Buddha Koṇḍañña’s presence.
2. Brahmin Suruci, who became a monk in Buddha Maṅgala’s presence.
3. Brahmin Uttara, who became a monk in Buddha Sumedha’s presence.
4. A Universal Monarch, who became a monk in Buddha Sujāta’s presence.
5. King Vijitāvī, who became a monk in Buddha Phussa’s presence.
6. King Sudassana, who became a monk in Buddha Vessabhū’s presence.
7. King Khema, who became a monk in Buddha Kakusandha’s presence.
8. King Pabbata, who became a monk in Buddha Koṇāgamana’s presence.
9. Jotipāla the Brahmin youth, who became a monk in Buddha Kassapa’s presence.
Five Lives as a Layman
He received the prediction as:
1. The Brahmin Atideva, from Buddha Revata.
2. The Brahmin Sujāta, from Buddha Sobhita.
3. The wealthy Jaṭila, from Buddha Padumuttara.
4. Kassapa the Brahmin youth, from Buddha Piyadassī.
5. King Arindama, from Buddha Sikhī.
Two Lives as a Nāga
He also received the prediction as:
1. Atula the Nāga King, from Buddha Sumana.
2. Another Nāga King, also named Atula, from Buddha Vipassī.
Three Different Lives
1. In one life as Sakka, the Lord of the Devas, he received the prediction from Buddha Dhammadassī.
2. In another life as a warrior King of the Yakkhas, he received the prediction from Buddha Anomadassī.
3. In another life as a lion king, from Buddha Paduma.
Reflections on the Rarities
In this way, throughout the duration of four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons in which our Bodhisatta Gotama was fulfilling the perfections, it was only in the 24 existences from Buddha Dīpaṅkara’s Dispensation to Buddha Kassapa’s that he encountered a Buddha’s Dispensation. Bearing this in mind, we should realize the rarity of such an encounter and should strive to make the most of the opportunity we are blessed with.
Even a being so great as the Bodhisatta, who had received the definite prophecy from Buddha Dīpaṅkara, had witnessed only 24 Dispensations, which were very few if we take into consideration that long duration. Even in those 24 Dispensations, it was only in nine that he obtained monkhood. Judging from this, it is clear that becoming a monk is a rarity, as it is said in the texts, the state of becoming a monk is rare (pabbajita-bhāvo dullabho). Becoming a monk, which proves to be so difficult for a Bodhisatta to attain, who had even received the predictions, will be all the more so for ordinary persons.
Nowadays, in Buddhist society, some thoughtful people, who have some off-days while toiling to earn a living, put on robes temporarily lest their leisure should be futile. They would make use of it to their advantage. Such a monk is called a “rare (dullabha) monk.” As they could not live long as a monk, the state of which is very difficult to obtain, they try to take it up for a short period.
If one fails to understand its meaning, one is bound to have the wrong notion that only such a temporary monastic is a “rare monastic.” But he who, after becoming a novice in his younger days, attains monkhood in due course, a monk who has all along been in the robe since his childhood, is not a “rare monastic.” Because of this notion, people are inclined to show their generosity to a rare monastic more than to a lifelong monastic who has been ordained from their twentieth year. If a temporary monkhood is difficult to achieve, it goes without saying that a permanent monkhood is even more difficult to achieve.
Government Servants and Monastic Life
Since there is a rule: Monks, royal attendants should not be made monks (na bhikkhave rāja-bhaṭo pabbājetabbo), some would say that even though they would make a request to become monks during their spare time, it is not permissible for the Saṅgha to grant
It is not proper to say this either. In the commentary on the Story of the Soldier (Rāja-bhaṭa-vatthu) of the Great Chapter (Mahā-khandhaka, Vin Mv 1) of the Vinaya (PTS 1.73), it is explained: “Although, originally, a royal attendant, he who now has returned his salaries to the king; he who has handed over his post either to his son or to his brother; and has informed the king that he is no longer in royal service; he who has fully performed his duties for which he is paid; and he who got the permission to become a monk, willingly given by his rightful employer, the king: it is lawful to ordain them.” In view of this explanation, if pensioners nowadays want to become monks permanently for life, they should do so after returning their pensions to the government or after being given permission willingly from the government saying: “You may become a monk, if you wish.”
The rule that “royal attendants should not be made monks,” has been promulgated only with reference to those who took the shelter of the Dispensation so that they might escape the king’s employ. This should be known from the text of the Story of the Soldier (Rāja-bhaṭa-vatthu, Vin Mv PTS 1.73). Government servants today have no intention of escaping service. In fact, they are even worried lest they should be dismissed by incurring the employer’s displeasure as he would ask: “Why should you become a monk?” Therefore, those who become temporary monastics are not against the rule of the Vinaya Great Division (Mahā-vagga), provided they do so after getting permission from the authorities concerned.
Even if the one ordained had the intention to escape government service, as is referred to by the rule, it is those monastics conferring ordination upon him that violate the rule, and not the one ordained who is still a valid monk. This is clearly stated in the Vinaya texts.
Another way of thinking is as follows: Even a great being like our Bodhisatta, who had received the definite prophecy, happened to be a monastic only nine times despite the fact that he had encountered 24 Buddhas. From this one is likely to think: “Rare is it to become a monk.” Be that as it may. But, if one takes into consideration the statements in the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa) that 400,000 Arahats accompanied Buddha Dīpaṅkara when entering into Rammavatī city for alms food, and that there were 100,000 Arahats on the first occasion of the three meetings, as the number of Arahats was so great, one can hold that it is not hard to become a monk.
The saying: “Rare is it to become a monk” means “it is seldom that circumstances are favourable for such an event.” Each time the Bodhisatta encountered a Buddha’s Dispensation, he hardly had access to becoming a monk because circumstances were not favourable. Those numerous Arahats in the lifetime of Buddha Dīpaṅkara were the ones who had favourable circumstances, not only to become monastics but to become Arahats. In any endeavours, it is difficult to get a result when circumstances are not favourable. On the other hand, achievement of a result is easy under favourable circumstances.
It was because they had been endowed with the perfections, which were fulfilled in their past existences and with all other factors leading to Awakening that they became not only monks but also Arahats.
In the Discourse about the Fools and the Wise (Bāla-paṇḍita-sutta, MN 129), there is a simile of a blind tortoise in connection with the saying: Rare is life as a human being (manussatta-bhāvo dullabho). Suppose a man throws a yoke, which has only one hole, into the sea. That yoke would float adrift to the west if blown by the east wind, to the east if blown by the west wind, to the south if blown by the north wind and to the north if blown by the south wind. In the sea there is a tortoise blind in both eyes which comes up to the surface of the sea every hundred years. The chance of getting its head into the hole of the drifting yoke is rare indeed. For a being, who has been suffering in the suffering abodes in one of his existences, it is more than 100 times more difficult to be reborn as a human being. Other Pāḷi texts also contain explanations that a human life is difficult to achieve.
While, on the one hand, the rarity of birth as a human being is thus taught, there is teaching, on the other hand, in such books as the Traditions (Apadāna), the Stories about Heavenly Mansions (Vimāna-vatthu), etc., that human and divine bliss can be attained for several existences with the gift of a single flower. This may lead to the impression that: “Human life is not difficult to gain, but easy.” The Traditions (Apadāna) and the like are delivered concerning those who are unable to be reborn as humans for lack of agreeable resources, whereas the Discourse about the Fools and the Wise (Bāla-paṇḍita-sutta, MN 129) and such discourses are given concerning the possibility of rebirth in several human existences through the gift of a flower. The rarity of monkhood is to be viewed in the same manner.
With regard to human existence, it may be taken that even though one does not contemplate deeply it is not hard to become a human because of the fact that the world’s population is growing day after day; but on the other hand, it may be realized that the number of beings in the four suffering states is far greater than that of human beings. Even in the animal world alone, there are countless species. If we take just the population of ants alone and compare them with that of humans, it exceeds the latter beyond all comparison. Judging from the countless number of beings in the four suffering states as well as from the limited number of humans, it is obvious that rebirth in the human world is indeed very rare.
Similarly, it is difficult to join the Saṅgha each time there arises a Buddha’s Dispensation in the world. Those who have the potential qualities to become monastics in the Dispensation of a Buddha become not only monastics but Arahats as well. Therefore, the number of such persons is considerable. But this should not lead one to believe that it is easy to become a monk just because they happen to be congregated in the presence of each Buddha under favourable circumstances.
In other words, he who is endowed with two factors is likely to become a monk: 1), Birth in a Buddha’s Dispensation, which is hard to come by (Buddhuppāda-dullabha) and 2), the life of a human being which is hard to come by (manussatta-dullabha). There is absolutely no possibility of becoming a monk in the absence of a Buddha’s Dispensation though one may be a human. There is absolutely no such possibility if one is a Deva, Sakka, Brahma or a being in a suffering abode, even though there is Dispensation of a Buddha.
Of these two events, birth in a Buddha’s Dispensation, which is called Buddhuppāda-navama, is harder to come by. Only when there appears a Buddha can there be his Dispensation. And to appear as a Buddha, it takes one at least four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons, even after receipt of the prophecy predicting one will become a Buddha, and for so long a period, one is to fulfil the perfections assiduously with the aforesaid four modes of development. When there appears a Buddha at long last, and his Dispensation shines forth, but if one is not born a human being or even when thus born, if one encounters other hindrances, one cannot become a monastic. Taking this seriously into consideration, it may be said that becoming a monk is even rarer than witnessing a Buddha’s Dispensation in the world.
Those who, as a result of their meritorious deeds, have the two factors of witnessing the Dispensation and of being a human, which are both difficult to obtain, should not find formidable hardships in their way to becoming a monk which is brought about by the two factors. Though it seems that the possibility of becoming a monk is simple because a billion Arahats in the lifetime of Buddha Dīpaṅkara possessed the two necessary factors: a Buddha’s Dispensation and a human existence, it is really difficult to have these immediate causes for becoming a monk, hence the saying: “Rare indeed is becoming a monk.”
Fulfilling the Perfections in Different Lives
The Bodhisatta, the recluse Sumedha, before meeting Buddha Dīpaṅkara and while in his youth, had engaged in generosity by giving away all his possessions; in renunciation, by going forth from household life to the homeless state; in morality, by observing the precepts as an ascetic and in tranquillity (samatha) meditation, by putting in efforts to attain the absorptions (jhāna) and super knowledges (abhiññā). Having done so, he received the definite prophecy from Buddha Dīpaṅkara and that was followed by his contemplating the ten perfections and his exertion and fulfilment of the perfections, beginning with generosity (dāna) through the aforesaid four modes of development that lasted four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons up to his existence as Prince
In fulfilling the ten perfections, as mentioned in the Abundance of Meaning (Aṭṭha-sālinī, DsA), and the Birth Stories (Jātaka) commentary with regard to the perfection of generosity (dāna-pāramī), the existences in which he performed generosity were countless, as he had done so when he was the Brahmin Akitti, Brahmin Saṅkha, King Dhanañjaya, King Mahā Sudassana, Brahmin chaplain Mahā Govinda, King Nimi, Prince Candakumāra, the wealthy Visayha, King Sivi and Prince Vessantara, etc. What are particularly mentioned in these commentaries is that the generosity shown by the Bodhisatta, as the wise hare (Ja 316), at the sacrifice of his life, was the highest perfection of generosity (paramattha-dāna-pāramī).
With regard to the perfection of morality (sīla-pāramī), the existences in which he observed morality are countless, as he had done so when he was the Nāga King Campeyya, Nāga King Bhūridatta, elephant King Chaddanta, Prince Jayaddisa, Prince Alīnasattu, etc. In particular, his observance of morality at the sacrifice of his life while he was the Nāga King Saṅkhapāla (Ja 524) was the highest perfection of morality (paramattha-sīla-pāramī).
With regard to the perfection of renunciation (nekkhamma-pāramī), the existences in which he renounced the world are countless, as he had done so leaving behind his kingdom when he was Prince Hatthipāla, the wise Ayoghara, etc. In particular, his renunciation of the kingly wealth that had come to him when he was Cūḷa Sutasoma (Ja 525) and which he found loathsome as spittle, absolutely without attachment, was the highest perfection of renunciation (paramattha-nekkhamma-pāramī).
With regard to the perfection of wisdom (paññā-pāramī), the existences in which he fulfilled the perfection of wisdom were countless, as he had done so when he was the wise Vidhura, Mahā Govinda, Kudāla, Araka, Mahosadha, etc. In particular, his ability to assert by means of his wisdom that there was a snake in the leather bag without seeing it with his own eyes when he was the wise Senaka in the Birth Story about the Sack of Flour (Sattu-bhasta-jātaka, Ja 402), was the highest perfection of wisdom (paramattha-paññā-pāramī).
With regard to the perfection of energy (viriya-pāramī), the existences in which he fulfilled the perfection of energy were countless. In particular, his effort putting forth energy swimming in the great ocean as Prince Mahā Janaka of the Birth Story about King Mahā Janaka (Mahā-janaka-jātaka, Ja 539) was the highest perfection of energy (paramattha-viriya-pāramī).
In the Birth Story about Khantivādī (Khantivādi-jātaka, Ja 313), as Khantivādī the ascetic, his forbearance without anger at the chopping off of his limbs, big and small, by King Kalābu was the highest perfection of forbearance (paramattha-khanti-pāramī).
In the Birth Story about Mahā Sutasoma (Mahā-sutasoma-jātaka, Ja 537), as King Sutasoma, his keeping of his promise and being true to his word given to the cannibal Porisāda, by returning to him, and potentially sacrificing his life, was the highest perfection of truthfulness (paramattha-sacca-pāramī).
In the Birth Story about the Wise Mūgapakkha (Mūga-pakkha-jātaka, Ja 538), as Prince Temiya, his maintenance of resolve to keep silent at the sacrifice of his life, when he was subjected to tests of endurance, sometimes mildly, and at other times severely, for sixteen long years was the highest perfection of resolution (paramattha-adhiṭṭhāna-pāramī).
In the Birth Story about the King Ekarājā (Eka-rāja-jātaka, Ja 303), or in the Birth Story about the Wise Suvaṇṇasāma (Suvaṇṇasāma-jātaka, Ja 540), his goodwill directed towards the malicious king as well as towards lions, tigers and other beasts was the highest perfection of loving-kindness (paramattha-mettā-pāramī).
In the Birth Story about the Bristling Hair (Loma-haṁsa-jātaka, Ja 94), his being equally indifferent to all treatment such as being spat on by village children with mucus, phlegm and saliva, or the honour done to him with flowers, scents, etc. by village elders was the highest perfection of equanimity (paramattha-upekkhā-pāramī).
When the Birth Stories Occurred
The narration by the commentators of these existences, in which the ten perfections were fulfilled, are reproduced from their respective stories of the Birth Stories (Jātaka). A study of these stories shows that all the stories, except five, occurred in the present aeon. The five exceptional ones are:
1. The Birth Story about the Merchant from Seri (Seriva-vāṇija-jātaka, Ja 3).
This story originated five aeons ago as is evidenced by the following sentence read in the commentary: In the fifth aeon, reckoned from the present one, in the country of Seriva, the Bodhisatta was a hawker named Seriva who roamed about with bags on his shoulder selling beads (atīte
2. The Birth Story about the Bristling Hair (Loma-haṁsa-jātaka, Ja 94).
This story originated 91 aeons ago as is evidenced by the following commentarial statement: In the 91st aeon, reckoned from the present one, the Bodhisatta was an Ājīvaka, having taken up the life of a naked ascetic in order to investigate heretical asceticism (atīte eka-navuti-kappa-matthake bodhisatto bāhiraka-tapaṁ vīmaṁsissāmī ti ājīvaka-pabbajaṁ pabbajitvā acelako ahosi).
3. The Birth Story about the Teacher Araka (Araka-jātaka, Ja 169).
This story originated seven aeons ago as is evidenced by the following commentarial statement in the concluding portion of the Birth Stories (Jātaka): In this way, the Bodhisatta did not fall from the absorptions, but was reborn in the Brahma abode and did not come to the human world for the period in which the aeon dissolved seven times and evolved seven times (evaṁ bodhisatto … aparihīnajjhāno brahma-loke nibbattitvā satta saṁvaṭṭa-vivaṭṭa-kappe na imaṁ lokaṁ puna āgamāsi).
4. The Birth Story about the Ascetic Kesava (Kesava-jātaka, Ja 346).
This story originated 570 aeons ago.
5. The Birth Story about Brahma Baka (Brahma-baka-jātaka, Ja 405).
This story originated also 570 aeons ago.
The two Birth Stories (Jātaka) of Kesava and Baka are the stories between which there was no intervening period of existence. The stories given in detail in the commentary may be retold as follows: in the Birth Story about the Ascetic Kesava (Kesava-jātaka, Ja 346), Kesava was first an ascetic and on his death became Baka Brahma. That Baka Brahma was reborn in Vehapphala abode first, living for 500 great aeons (mahā-kappa). When his life there came to an end, he was reborn in the Subhakiṇhā abode, living for 64 great aeons. Again, when his life there came to an end, he was reborn in Ābhassara abode, where he lived for eight great aeons. This shows that he attained Ābhassara abode only after passing through 500 aeons in Vehapphala and 64 aeons in Subhakiṇhā, thus totalling 564 aeons. It is said that he held wrong view when he reached Ābhassara abode.
As a Brahma he held wrong view, according to the commentary. Although there is no mention as to which of the eight aeons in that abode that he did so, by taking the two Birth Stories (Jātaka) together, it may be estimated that about 570 aeons had passed before he started harbouring the view that happened to be wrong.
Generations of teachers are of the belief that the text of any Birth Story (Jātaka) in which the commentator does not refer to the time of its origin in aeons, saying: “In such and such an aeon reckoned from the present one,” but which simply says: In the past (atīte), belongs to the present aeon. On the authority of this belief, the stories in the Abundance of Meaning (Aṭṭha-sālinī, DsA) and Birth Stories (Jātaka) commentary originated in the present aeon, for they only have the simpler words, In the past (atīte) with regard to the time of the Bodhisatta’s rebirth. But all the stories belonging to this aeon cannot be told because they are too numerous. The stories told are only those that have relationship with the present episodes. The number of the stories left untold is far greater.
If only a few pertinent stories are delivered out of those innumerable ones that happened in this aeon, it follows that the stories of his fulfilment of the perfections which had not been dealt with in previous aeons must also be countless. Besides, considering that the existences in which the Bodhisattas fulfilled the perfections during the period of four immeasurable periods and 100,000 aeons cannot be calculated in terms of aeons, not to speak of in terms of existences before the present one, their task of fulfilling the perfections is immensely formidable for ordinary persons.
On the other hand, if one thinks of the Bodhisattas, these great beings, who undertook the fulfilment of the perfections, they are worthy of our most profound adoration
The series of these numerous existences in which our Bodhisatta had fulfilled the perfections ended with that of Prince Vessantara. Bodhisatta Sumedha, first and foremost, fulfilled the perfection of generosity (dāna-pāramī) by giving away all his possessions while as a layman before his renunciation. Similarly, when he had become an ascetic and received the prediction about his Buddhahood, he contemplated the factors leading to Buddhahood and found that the perfection of generosity is the first of the perfections, he resolved to act accordingly. All of this points to the fact that it was the perfection of generosity with which the Bodhisattas commence the fulfilment of the perfections, and it was the same perfection with which they ended their fulfilment, as in the existence of Prince Vessantara.
The perfection of generosity (dāna-pāramī) results in an attainment of a better life (bhava-sampatti) and attainment of wealth (bhoga-sampatti), which follow one like a shadow, and which cannot be prevented from doing so until one realizes Nibbāna. It is essential for all who go from one birth to another in Saṁsāra, as has been explained in the section on the perfection of generosity (dāna-pāramī) in the Further Explanantions (Anudīpani). Since the Bodhisattas are leaders of those beings in Saṁsāra, they specially fulfilled this perfection in their final existence, as that of Prince Vessantara. After doing so in their final existence they withdraw from their task of fulfilling the perfections. Since their fulfilment is complete, they move on to Tusita for their last existence, and await the right time for becoming a Buddha.
The Eight Differences
Though these eight differences (vematta) are given at the end of the Chronicle of Buddha Gotama in the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa) commentary, here, in this work, they are given in the Further Explanations.
Vematta is a Pāḷi word derived from vimatta, vi meaning “varied” and matta “length” or “size.” The Buddhas: Dīpaṅkara, Koṇḍañña, etc., possessed the same and equal attributes but they were different from one another in eight particulars.
These eight are:
1. Difference in lifespan (āyu-vematta).
2. Difference in height (pamāṇa-vematta).
3. Difference in clan (kula-vematta).
4. Difference in striving (padhāna-vematta).
5. Difference in bodily radiance (rasmi-vematta).
6. Difference in vehicles used in renunciation (yāna-vematta).
7. Difference in the Bodhi tree (Bodhi-vematta).
8. Difference in seat (pallaṅka-vematta).
1. Difference in Lifespan
Difference in lifespan (āyu-vematta).
Buddhas Koṇḍañña, Anomadassī, Paduma, Padumuttara, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī, Siddhattha and Tissa; these nine Buddhas appeared when the lifespan was 100,000 years.
Buddhas Maṅgala, Sumana, Sobhita, Nārada, Sumedha, Sujāta, Piyadassī and Phussa; these eight Buddhas appeared when the lifespan was 90,000 years.
Buddhas Revata and Vessabhū; these two Buddhas appeared when the lifespan was 6,000 years.
Buddha Vipassī appeared when the lifespan was 80,000; Buddha Sikhī, when it was 70,000; Buddha Kakusandha, when it was 40,000; Buddha Koṇāgamana, when it was 30,000; Buddha Kassapa, when it was 20,000 and our Buddha Gotama when it was just 100 years.
It may be argued that these Buddhas should be of equal lifespan as they were great
Though all Buddhas have the power to prolong their lives as a result of their past deeds that have effected their conception, their lifespans are different in length. According to the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa) commentary which says:
Upacita-puñña-sambhārānaṁ dīghāyuka-saṁvatta-niya-kamma-samupetānam-pi Buddhānaṁ yuga-vasena āyuppamāṇaṁ appamāṇaṁ ahosi.
Though they are endowed with the merits of their past deeds that can bring about longevity as a result of their acquisition of wholesome prerequisites, Buddhas are of unequal length of life in accordance with their lifespans (āyu-kappa).
To give a worldly example: If the seed of a teak tree that has the ability to last for 1,000 years is sown in a dry zone where the soil is hard and barren, it cannot live that long. Similarly, the meritorious deeds of the Bodhisattas in their final existence caused their conception and the power to prolong their lives. However, if they attain Buddhahood in the short period of a lifespan (āyu-kappa), that is like the dry, hard, barren land their lives have to be short according to their lifespan.
Length of Lifespan When a Buddha Appears
Buddhas usually do not appear in an aeon when the lifespan of beings is on the increase. Because if a Buddha were to appear in such an aeon and teach the doctrine of impermanence and the like, beings would fail to understand the characteristics of impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and the non-self (anatta) of conditioned things as their lives become longer and longer, one aeon after another. For this reason, Buddhas do not appear in any of the aeons on the increase but they do so in the decreasing aeons.
Even with regard to the decreasing aeons, Buddhas appear only in the aeons that have a lifespan of at most 100,000 years. They do not appear in the aeons that have a lifespan longer than 100,000 years because their teaching of the three characteristics of conditioned things would fall on deaf ears. When the lifespan decreases, 100 years is the minimum of the aeons in which they would appear. When the lifespan goes down from 100 years, Buddhas do not appear in those aeons of shorter lifespan because, even though the characteristics of conditioned things manifest themselves glaringly, as their impurities of greed, hate and delusion grow more at the time, beings are unable to accept, follow and practise the Dhamma despite the Buddhas’ teaching. Hence aeons of less than 100 years of lifespan are devoid of Buddhas.
In this way, Buddhas appeared during the aeons ranging from that of the maximum lifespan which was 100,000 years to that of the minimum lifespan which was just 100 years. Though it is true that they appeared in the decreasing aeons between the two aeons, that is, that of the maximum lifespan and that of the minimum, Buddhas appeared only in the aeon in which the lifespan agrees with the degree of maturity of the prerequisites for the perfections while they were Bodhisattas. Those Bodhisattas, whose prerequisites reached maturity, which coincided with the period of 100,000 years of lifespan, which was appropriate to their Awakening, appeared as a Buddha in that aeon of 100,000 years of lifespan.
Those Bodhisattas, whose prerequisites were not yet mature as they are still at the stage of fulfilling the perfections,
In this Fortunate Aeon (Bhadda-kappa), Buddha Kakusandha appeared in the aeon of 40,000 years lifespan; after him, passed one inclusive period (antara-kappa), and Buddha Koṇāgamana appeared in the aeon of 30,000 years lifespan; after him, passed one inclusive period; and Buddha Kassapa appeared in the aeon of 20,000 years lifespan. From this, it might be anticipated that our Buddha Gotama should appear in like manner, that is, in the lifespan of 10,000 years when one inclusive period had elapsed after Buddha Kassapa. But he was unable to appear then, because the prerequisites for the perfections had not yet reached maturity. He was unable to do so even in the aeon of 5,000 years of lifespan, or of 1,000 years or of 500 years. The reason was that his complete fulfilment of the perfections took place only in his life as Prince Vessantara. His life as Prince Vessantara occurred in the aeon of 100 years of lifespan. Since his undertaking of the fulfilment of the perfections came to an end in the aeon of 100 years, Buddha Gotama appeared only in the aeon of the same length of lifespan. Here the author inserts Sayagyi U Lin’s remark on the four ages (yuga) in explaining the word yuga-vasena. We leave it out from our translation at it is not quite applicable here.
2. Difference in Height
Difference in height (pamāṇa-vematta) is the difference in the height of the Buddhas.
The height of Buddha Sumana was 90 cubits. [I have rearranged these lists, and other lists below, in order of size, time, etc.]
The height of four Buddhas: Koṇḍañña, Maṅgala, Nārada and Sumedha, was 88 cubits.
The height of six Buddhas: Dīpaṅkara, Revata, Piyadassī, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī and Vipassī, was 80 cubits.
The height of Buddha Sikhī was 70 cubits.
The height of three Buddhas: Siddhattha, Tissa and Vessabhū, was 60 cubits.
The height of five Buddhas: Sobhita, Anomadassī, Paduma, Padumuttara and Phussa, was 58 cubits.
The height of Buddha Sujāta was 50 cubits.
The heights of three Buddhas: Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana and Kassapa, were 40 cubits, 30 cubits and 20 cubits respectively.
Buddha Gotama’s height was 16 or 18 cubits. The different versions are explained in the Chronicle of Buddha Gotama.
It should be noted that the differences in height of the Buddhas are caused mainly by climate and food. Since the Buddhas were a part of mankind and are thus human beings, their lifespan is naturally the same as that of the people of their times. The Buddhas who appeared in the period of 90,000 years lifespan generally lived up to 90,000 years. Those who appeared in the period of 100,000 years lifespan generally lived up to 100,000 years. In this way, the length of their lifespan agreed with that of the people.
Their heights, however, cannot be determined by their lifespans because, though they appeared in the same period of 100,000 years of lifespan, Buddhas Dīpaṅkara, Atthadassī, and Dhammadassī were only 80 cubits tall while Koṇḍañña was 88 cubits; Buddhas Anomadassī, Paduma and Padumuttara were 58 cubits, Buddhas Siddhattha and Tissa were 60 cubits. This suggests that the heights of the Buddhas had nothing to do with their lifespans. If those of the same periods differed in height, so could those of different periods.
From the statement made in the Vinaya (Pāc 92, PTS 4.173), that the Buddha’s younger brother, Ven. Ānanda, was only four fingers shorter than his elder brother, it may be taken that other people of the time were as tall as the Buddha, if not of equal height. It therefore follows that the height of the Buddha was equal to that of the people who were his contemporaries. This, however, does not mean that the two heights were exactly the same.
That the Buddha’s height was equal to contemporary people’s height was due to the two factors: climate and food. When the unrighteousness of rulers is followed by that of the whole world, with the exception of the noble ones, there happen irregularities of climate and deficiencies of nutriment in food. Being associated with such climate and food the people’s physical qualities cannot develop as much as they should. On the other hand, these qualities would develop well when righteousness prevails.
3. Difference in Family
Difference in family (kula-vematta) is the difference in clan in which the Buddhas belonged. Buddhas Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana and Kassapa were born in Brahmin clans, while the remaining 22 Buddhas were born in noble (Khattiya) clans. When people in the world recognized the supremacy of the aristocrats, Buddhas were born in the aristocratic clans; when they recognized the supremacy of the Brahmins, Buddhas belonged to the Brahmin clans.
4. Difference in Striving
Difference in striving (padhāna-vematta) is the difference in the duration of the austerities.
Seven Buddhas: Dīpaṅkara, Koṇḍañña, Sumana, Anomadassī, Sujāta, Siddhattha, and Kakusandha, practised the austerities for ten months.
Four Buddhas: Maṅgala, Sumedha, Tissa and Sikhī, practised for eight months.
Buddha Revata practised for seven months.
Four Buddhas: Piyadassī, Phussa, Vessabhū and Koṇāgamana practised for six months.
Buddha Sobhita practised for four months.
Three Buddhas: Paduma, Atthadassī, Vipassī, practised for half a month.
Four Buddhas: Nārada, Padumuttara, Dhammadassī and Kassapa, practised for seven days.
Our Buddha Gotama, Lord of the Three Worlds, endowed with inconceivable attributes, practised the austerities for six years.
As there were reasons for inequality of lifespan, height, etc., so here there is a reason for the difference in duration of the austerities, especially in the case of Buddha Gotama. On investigation, it would be found that it was due to his own deeds.
To explain further, in the Traditions about the Buddha’s Previous Deeds (Pubba-kamma-pilotika-Buddhāpadāna, Th-ap 39.10, PTS 1.300) the Buddha himself says with regard to his demeritorious deed that resulted in his practice of the austerities for six long years:
Avacāhaṁ Jotipālo, Bhagavaṁ Kassapaṁ tadā: “Kuto nu bodhi muṇḍassa bodhi parama-dullabhā?” Tena kamma-vipākena, acariṁ dukkaraṁ bahuṁ, chabbassānuruveḷāyaṁ, tato bodhim-apāpuṇiṁ.
In the lifetime of Buddha Kassapa, I was Jotipāla, a Brahmin youth. Then I foolishly offended him saying: “How can this shaven headed man attain knowledge of Awakening and omniscience which are indeed very difficult to attain.” Because of that verbal misdeed, I had to practise the austerities for six long years in my final existence.
In view of the fact that it is directly mentioned in the text that the Buddha had to spend six years for the practice of the austerities on account of his offence, it is understandable that those Buddhas who had to practise it only for seven days did so in accordance with their sufficiently great deeds of merit. Therefore, it should be stated that the difference in duration of practice of the austerities was affected by their actions.
Though there were differences in the duration of their ascetic practices (padhāna-viriya) just before their attainments of Buddhahood, once they attained the goal, the degrees of the effort they put forth (payatta-viriya) being one of the six glories of a Buddha, are one and
5. Difference in Radiance
Difference in radiance (rasmi-vematta) is the difference in bodily radiance.
Buddha Maṅgala’s radiance spread across the 10,000 world-element; Buddha Padumuttara’s radiance did so up to twelve leagues; Buddha Vipassī’s radiance up to seven leagues; Buddha Sikhī’s up to three leagues; Buddha Kakusandha’s up to ten leagues and Buddha Gotama’s up to four cubits which form a fathom. The radiance of the rest of the Buddhas were not constant, they shone forth as far as these Buddhas desired.
Tatra rasmi-vemattaṁ ajjhāsaya-paṭibaddhaṁ hoti. Yo yattakaṁ icchasi, tassa tattakaṁ sarīrappabhā pharati. Maṅgalassa pana: “Dasa-sahassi-loka-dhātuṁ pharatū,” ti ajjhāsayo ahosi. [See the commentary on DN 14, PTS 2.425].
Of the differences, the difference in radiance is related to a Buddha’s own wish expressed at the time of fulfilling the perfections. At the time of fulfilling the perfections, if a Buddha wishes that his physical radiance should spread to a certain extent, to that extent his radiance spreads. Buddha Maṅgala’s wish was: “Let my radiance spread throughout the 10,000 world-element.”
In the sub-commentary, aspiration (ajjhāsaya) is explained to be the aspiration that was said while the Bodhisatta concerned was fulfilling the perfections.
When one looks for the cause of the difference between the physical radiance of the Buddhas, one may say that it is the perfections which they had fulfilled. That it should be so is explained by the commentators in the story of Buddha Maṅgala whose radiance spread all over the 10,000 world-element.
In his final existence, while fulfilling the perfections – similar to the existence of Bodhisatta Gotama as Prince Vessantara – Bodhisatta Maṅgala was once living with his family on a hill that resembled Vaṅkapabbata, when a Yakkha, Kharadāṭhika, in the guise of a Brahmin, asked the Bodhisatta to give him his children as alms. Thinking: “With pleasure, I shall give them away,” he actually did so.
Leaning against the wooden railing at the end of the walk, the Yakkha devoured them as though he was chewing a bundle of lotus stalks in the Bodhisatta’s presence. When the Bodhisatta looked at the Yakkha, he saw the red blood flowing like flames of fire from its mouth, which was open at that moment. But he did not experience even the slightest displeasure, simply thinking: “I have performed well the act of giving,” he was indeed glad to have done so. “As a result of this meritorious act, may my physical radiance likewise emit from my body in future,” so the Bodhisatta wished. Because of this aspiration, when he became a Buddha, his natural physical radiance reached every nook and corner in the 10,000 world-element.
From this story, it should be understood that the difference in radiance depended on whether the Buddhas had made an aspiration or not in the past. When one speaks of the difference of physical radiance, one generally means their natural radiance. If created by means of their power, in accordance with their wishes, any Buddha could make his radiance go as far as he desired. In the matter of power, there was no difference at all, one can never say: “This Buddha was of lesser power” or “that Buddha was of greater power.”
Three Kinds of Physical Radiances
1. The kind of radiance that constantly emits from the natural body of the Buddha (byāmappabhā). Having a fathom in length, these radiances, surrounding his body, were so dense and massive that they could not be distinguished from the Buddha’s body. When one looks at the light of an electric bulb from a distance one would think that the glow of light is a ball of fire. A closer and more careful look will reveal, however, the dazzling filament in the bulb. In the same way, the Buddha’s body was accompanied by the encircling radiance, each beam measuring a fathom. Such radiances are called
2. The kind of radiance that was the continuation of that which emits from the natural body and spread to a distance of 80 cubits (asīti-niccalobhāsa).
3. The kind of radiance that spread to countless world-elements because his blood, etc., became clearer when a Buddha contemplated the doctrine of the conditions or when he displayed the twin miracle, or on other occasions (disā-pharaṇa).
Two Kinds of Rays
The special quality of the Buddha’s complexion, visible to humans, Devas and Brahmas, is called a radiance in this connection. According to the Abhidhamma, the radiance that constantly emits from the natural body of the Buddha (byāmappabhā) and the radiance that spreads to a distance of 80 cubits (asīti-niccalobhāsa) are to be called the radiance born of one’s deeds of merit (kammaja), or the radiance born of temperature supported by one’s deeds (utuja-kamma-paccaya), because these two kinds have past action as their cause.
The radiance that spread to countless world-elements (disā-pharaṇa) should be called the radiance born of one’s mind (cittaja), or the radiance born of temperature and supported by one’s mind (citta-paccaya-utuja) because it has the clarity of the mind as its cause. Thus, their classification should be known.
6. Difference in Vehicles
Difference in vehicles (yāna-vematta) is the difference in vehicles used by the Bodhisattas in renunciation.
Buddhas Dīpaṅkara, Sumana, Sumedha, Phussa, Sikhī and Koṇāgamana renounced the world riding elephants.
Buddhas Koṇḍañña, Revata, Paduma, Piyadassī, Vipassī and Kakusandha renounced the world riding chariots drawn by thoroughbred horses.
Buddhas Maṅgala, Sujāta, Atthadassī, Tissa and Gotama renounced the world riding horses.
Buddhas Anomadassī, Siddhattha and Vessabhū renounced the world riding golden palanquins.
Buddha Nārada renounced the world on foot.
Buddhas Sobhita, Padumuttara, Dhammadassī and Kassapa renounced the world in flying palaces.
7. Difference in the Bodhi Tree
Difference in Bodhi tree (Bodhi-vematta) is the difference in Mahā Bodhi trees under which the Bodhisattas become a Buddha.
Buddha Dīpaṅkara became a Buddha under a Pepper (Pipphalī) tree. [Mistakenly given as a Nigrodha tree in the original translation.]
Buddha Koṇḍañña became a Buddha under a Beautiful Sāla (Sāla-kalyaṇī) tree.
Buddhas Maṅgala, Sumana, Revata and Sobhita became Buddhas under an Ironwood (Nāga) tree.
Buddha Anomadassī became a Buddha under an Arjuna (Ajjuna) tree.
Buddhas Paduma and Nārada became Buddhas under a Great Soṇa (Mahā-soṇa) tree.
Buddha Padumuttara became a Buddha under a Salala tree.
Buddha Sumedha became a Buddha under an Asoka (Mahā-nīpa) tree.
Buddha Sujāta became a Buddha under a Great Bamboo (Mahā-veḷu) tree.
Buddha Piyadassī became a Buddha under a Kakudha tree.
Buddha Atthadassī became a Buddha under a Campak tree.
Buddha Dhammadassī became a Buddha under a Bimbijāla tree.
Buddha Siddhattha became a Buddha under a Kaṇikāra tree.
Buddha Tissa became a Buddha under an Indian Laurel (Asana) tree.
Buddha Phussa became a Buddha under an Emblic Myrobalan (Āmalaka) tree.
Buddha Vipassī became a Buddha under a Trumpet Flower (Pāṭalī) tree.
Buddha Sikhī became a Buddha under a Fragrant Mango (Puṇḍarīka) tree.
Buddha Vessabhū became a Buddha under a Great Sāla tree.
Buddha Kakusandha became a Buddha under a Sirīsa tree.
Buddha Koṇāgamana became a Buddha under a Cluster Fig (Udumbara) tree.
Buddha Kassapa became a Buddha under a Banyan (Nigrodha) tree.
Buddha Gotama became a Buddha under an Asvattha (Assattha) tree.
The fourfold path is called Bodhi because it leads to the knowledge of the four truths. Omniscience is called Bodhi because it leads to the knowledge of what should be known. Its definition should be: Bujjhatī ti Bodhi, “that which knows the four truths and that which knows what is to be known is Bodhi.” The tree under which the Bodhisatta knows the four truths and others to be known thoroughly is also called Bodhi. The definition here is: Bujjhati etthā ti Bodhi, “the tree under which the Bodhisatta knows the four truths and all that is to be known is Bodhi.”
8. Difference in Seats
Difference in seats (pallaṅka-vematta) is the difference in the size of the seat the Buddhas sat on when Awakening.
The seat on which Buddha Sumana become a Buddha measured 60 cubits.
The seats on which the Buddhas Koṇḍañña, Maṅgala, Nārada and Sumedha become a Buddha measured 57 cubits each.
The seats on which the Buddhas Dīpaṅkara, Revata, Piyadassī, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī and Vipassī become a Buddha measured 53 cubits each.
The seats on which the Buddhas Siddhattha, Tissa and Vessabhū become a Buddha measured 40 cubits.
The seats on which the Buddhas Sobhita, Anomadassī, Paduma, Padumuttara and Phussa become a Buddha measured 38 cubits.
The seats on which the Buddhas Sujāta and Sikhī became a Buddha measured 32 cubits.
The seat on which Buddha Kakusandha become a Buddha measured 26 cubits.
The seat on which Buddha Koṇāgamana become a Buddha measured 20 cubits.
The seat on which Buddha Kassapa become a Buddha measured 15 cubits.
The seat on which Buddha Gotama become a Buddha measured 14 cubits.
Two Kinds of Seat
In this connection, it may be noted that there are two kinds of seats (pallaṅka): sitting cross-legged (ābhujana-pallaṅka) and a kind of seat (āsana-pallaṅka). Of these two, by sitting cross-legged (ābhujana-pallaṅka) is meant sitting cross-legged as in: He sits down, after folding his legs crosswise (nisīdati pallaṅkaṁ ābhujitvā), of the Long Discourse about Steadfast Mindfulness (Mahā-sati-paṭṭhāna-sutta, DN 22), etc.
By a kind of seat (āsana-pallaṅka) is meant a type of seat. A kind of seat is of different sub-divisions, such as a rich man’s seat (seṭṭhi-pallaṅka), a king’s seat (rāja-pallaṅka), a Nāga’s seat (Nāga-pallaṅka), a Deva’s seat (Deva-pallaṅka), a Dhamma seat (Dhamma-pallaṅka), an Awakening seat (Bodhi-pallaṅka), etc.
In the commentary on The Birth Story about the Mayhaka Bird (Mayhaka-jātaka, Ja 390) it is said:
Gaccha, imaṁ amhākaṁ gharaṁ ānetvā, mama pallaṅke nisīdāpetvā, amhākaṁ paṭiyatta-bhattassa pattaṁ pūretvā dāpehi.
Go and take this Paccekabuddha to my house; let him sit down on my seat and fill his bowl with the food prepared for me.
Such a seat of the wealthy man of Bārānasi represents a seat used by well-to-do persons (seṭṭhi-pallaṅka).
Such royal thrones as:
1. A lion seat (sīhāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of beechwood with lion figures at the base and is placed in the main hall of the palace where the king grants an audience.
2. A goose seat (haṁsāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of Thingan wood with goose (haṁsa) figures at the base and placed in the Jetavana Hall where the king paid homage to the Three Treasures.
3. A conch seat (saṅkhāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of mango wood with conch-shell figures at the base, and placed in the chamber where the king puts on his headdress.
4. A bee seat (bhamarāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of caraway wood with bee figures at the base and placed in the glass chamber where the king retires.
5. An elephant seat (gajāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of Saga wood with elephant figures at the base and placed in the Hall of Justice where the king gives rewards and punishments.
6. A peacock seat (mayurāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of rosewood with peacock figures at the base and placed in the northern chamber where the king accepts elephants and horses as tributes.
7. A deer seat (migāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of fig wood with figures of wild beasts at the base and placed in the southern chamber where the king holds meetings.
8. A lotus seat (padumāsana-pallaṅka) is a throne made of jack wood with lotus figures at the base and placed in the western theatrical chamber where the king is honoured.
These eight thrones used by a monarch as well as the 84,000 thrones used by the Universal Monarch, Mahā Sudassana, represent a king’s seat (rāja-pallaṅka).
The throne used by Nāga kings, such as Dhataraṭṭha, is a Nāga’s seat (Nāga-pallaṅka). The kind of throne mentioned in the Discourse concerning Janavasabha (Janavasabha-sutta, DN 18), the Discourse concerning Mahā Govinda (Mahā-govinda-sutta, DN 19), etc., where it is said: “Brahma Sanaṅkumāra may take his seat on a Deva’s throne whichever one he likes,” and also the kind of ruby throne measuring a league prepared for Ven. Mahā Moggallāna, as mentioned in the Short Discourse on the Destruction of Craving (Cūḷa-taṇhā-saṅkhāya-sutta, MN 37), represent a Deva’s seat (Deva-pallaṅka).
The kinds of throne on which the respondants (vissajjana), Ven. Upāli and Ven. Ānanda, sat when the Frst Council was held, as mentioned in the introduction to the Collection of the Long Discourses (Dīgha-nikāya) commentary, etc., and the throne on which noble Dhamma preachers, such as Buddhas, etc., are seated, represent Dhamma seats (Dhamma-pallaṅka).
The kind of seat where all Bodhisattas sat cross-legged with a firm determination, resolving: “Never shall I get up from this place until I achieve the knowledge of the path towards Awakening and omniscience,” is an Awakening seat (Bodhi-pallaṅka). Since it was on this seat that they overcame the five deaths (māra), the throne is also called the unconquered seat (aparājita-pallaṅka).
That Awakening seat (Bodhi-pallaṅka) was the throne lying four cubits east of the Bodhi tree which stands on the sacred site of the Awakening circle (Bodhi-maṇḍala). It was 100 cubits high and very beautiful. The throne arose instantly from the surface of the earth when the Bodhisatta spread the eight handfuls of grass at the very place. It was a result of his accumulated merits of deeds in fulfilling the perfections. The throne, being ornamented with various jewels, was full of splendour. Since it was the place on which the Bodhisatta arrived at the knowledge of the path to Awakening and omniscience, or where he became a Buddha, it is called the Awakening seat (Bodhi-pallaṅka).
The remaining pages of this section contain the author’s note on the controversy over the height of the Buddha Gotama’s Awakening seat (Bodhi-pallaṅka) and other matters related to it, quoting some extracts from such works as the sub-commentary on the Jewel Light (Maṇi-dīpa-ṭīkā), the sub-commentary on the Protection Discourses (Paritta-ṭīkā), the Light on the All-Seeing One (Samanta-cakkhu-dīpanī) and the decision given by the Taung Gwin Thathanabaing Sayādaw. As the author’s note is mainly meant for the edification of Myanmar scholars we have left it out from our translation.
The 18 Impossible Births
[Previously this was a stand-alone chapter VIII, entitled Eighteen Abhabbaṭṭhānas, but this 4-page section is better placed here, in the Further Explanations.]
There are 18 existences in which Bodhisattas, who have received the definite prophecy, are not reborn. Those Bodhisattas who, like the recluse Sumedha, are endowed with eight qualities See chapter II: The Rare appearance of a Buddha. required for receiving the definite prophecy and who have actually received it, are not reborn in eighteen different existences throughout Saṁsāra; this statement and the enumeration of the eighteen existences are given in the commentary on the Discourse about the Rhinocerus (Khagga-visāṇa-sutta, Snp 3, PTS 1.49. ff).
The eighteen existences are the following:
1. Blind since birth.
2. Deaf since birth.
3. A lunatic.
4. Someone dumb.
5. A cripple.
6. A barbarian.
7. Someone born in the womb of a female slave.
8. Someone with perpetual wrong belief.
9. Someone whose sex changes from male to female.
10. Someone who commits the five severest crimes of matricide, patricide, killing of an Arahat, shedding the blood of a Buddha, and causing schism of the Saṅgha.
11. A leper.
12. An animal smaller than a quail or a warbler.
13. An Asura called an ever-hungry Peta (khuppipāsika-peta), a Peta burning with craving (nijjhāma-taṇhika-peta) and Kālakañcika.
An ever-hungry Peta (khuppipāsika-peta) is an ever-hungry ghost, for he hardly has a chance to eat; a a Peta burning with craving (nijjhāma-taṇhika-peta) is another one who is always feeling hot, for he is always on fire. These are the Petas who in their previous lives were monks, the kind that Ven. Moggallāna encountered on Mount Gijjhakūṭa.
Kālakañcika was the name of an Asura whose body was three miles in size; but as he is of scanty flesh and blood, his complexion is like the colour of a withered leaf. His eyes, lying on his head, protrude like those of a lobster. Since the mouth is the size of the eye of a needle, also lying on the head, he has to bend forward to pick up the food, if he finds any at all.
14. In Avīci and Lokantarika.
Lokantarika is the space at the meeting of the three world-elements; it is the space where evil doers suffer for their misdeeds; such a place of intense suffering is called Lokantarika hell.
15. A Māra in a celestial abode of sensual pleasures.
16. A Non-percipient Brahma (Asañña-satta-brahma) and a Brahma of the Pure Abodes (Suddhāvāsa-brahma).
17. In the Formless (Arūpa-brahma) abodes.
18. In another world-element.
Here the author gives a detailed explanation of “a quail or a warbler” mentioned in the twelfth item of the above list. The author’s elucidations, quoting various authorities including two Birth Stories (Jātaka), are mainly meant for the benefit of Myanmar scholars and are
In listing the impossible births, the Abundance of Meaning (Aṭṭha-sālinī, DsA) commentary and the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa) commentary on the one hand and the Anthology of Discourses (Sutta-nipāta) commentary on the other, agree on some points and disagree on others. Of the eighteen existences given in the Anthology of Discourses commentary, the following eight are missing in the Abundance of Meaning commentary:
1. A lunatic.
2. A cripple.
3. A barbarian.
4. Someone whose sex changes from male to female.
5. Someone born in the womb of a female slave.
6. A leper.
7. A Māra.
8. In another world-element.
The Abundance of Meaning commentary does not give the exact number of these existences, and those listed in it omitted in the Anthology of Discourses commentary are:
1. A woman.
2. A hermaphrodite.
3. A eunuch. The list in the commentary to the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa) is the same as that in the Abundnce of Meaning (Aṭṭha-sālinī, DsA) commentary.
Of these three existences, that of a woman is easily understood.
The original Pāḷi word meaning a “hermaphrodite” is ubhato-vyañjanaka. Ubhato means, there have been two past productive deeds (kamma), one causing the female sex and the other, male; vyañjanaka means genital organs. A hermaphrodite is of two kinds: a female hermaphrodite, and a male one. In a female hermaphrodite, the female sex characteristics appear dominant while the male ones are subordinate at normal times; in a male hermaphrodite, the male sex characteristics appear conspicuous while the female ones are subordinate at normal times.
When a woman with both sexes desires to have intercourse taking the role of a man with another woman, her female organ disappears and the male organ appears. When a man with both sexes desires to copulate with another man, his male organ disappears and his female organ manifests itself.
The female hermaphrodite can conceive a child; she can also make another woman conceive. The male hermaphrodite cannot conceive, but he can impregnate a woman. This is the difference between the two, see the Vinaya Great Division (Mahā-vagga) commentary.
The Pāḷi term for a deviant is paṇḍaka, meaning a person with deviant sexuality. Despite his being male, he is different from other men in the sense that he doesn’t engage in coital acts. There are five kinds of deviant:
1. One whose sexual urge is gratified by sucking another man’s penis or taking that man’s semen in his mouth (āsitta-paṇḍaka).
2. A voyeur, one whose sexual urge is gratified by stealthily watching the act of others’ lovemaking and by feeling envious of them (ussuyya-paṇḍaka).
3. One who is castrated like a eunuch in-charge of women in a harem (opakkamika-paṇḍaka).
4. One who has sexual urge during the dark fortnight of the lunar month and who is sexually calm during the bright fortnight (pakkha-paṇḍaka).
5. One who has been born without sexual characteristics (napuṁsaka-paṇḍaka).
The last is without the sex decad in his make up since birth and remains without the sex
The 18 Attributes of the Buddha
The Four Kinds of Analytical Knowledge
It has been said above that as soon as the Buddha attained Perfect Awakening, he became possessed of the four kinds of analytical knowledge. These four knowledges are:
1. The analytic knowledge of meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa).
2. The analytic knowledge of phenomena (dhamma-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa).
3. The analytic knowledge of language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa).
4. The analytic knowledge of intuition (paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa).
Paṭisambhidā means multifarious, diverse, various. Analytic knowledge (paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) means knowledge which is discriminating and comprehensive.
1. The analytic knowledge of meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa). Herein meaning (attha) means: 1) Meanings that are dependent on conditions, understanding the results of causes; 2) Nibbāna; 3) the meaning of words; 4) the meaning associated with resultant thoughts (vipāka) with their mind and mental concomitants, 5) the meaning associated with non-causative thoughts (kiriya) with their mind and mental concomitants.
The Buddha became endowed with the above five kinds of meaning (attha) as soon as he become a Buddha. Being endowed with the analytical knowledge of meaning, the Buddha knew discriminately and comprehensively about everything, and was able to expound these to others. The great non-causative consciousness (mahā-kiriya-ñāṇa) associated with the four kinds of knowledge that arise in the Buddha when his mind attends to the above five meanings, as well as path and fruit that he knows when his mind attends to Nibbāna, are called the analytic knowledge of meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) of the Buddha.
Thus, the analytic knowledge of meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) of the noble ones (ariya), who are still training themselves to become Arahats, such as that of Ven. Ānanda, consists of the great meritorious consciousness (mahā-kusala-citta), associated with the four kinds of knowledge that arises in
2. The analytic knowledge of phenomena (dhamma-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa). Discriminating and comprehensive knowledge about phenomena. Herein phenomena (dhamma) means: 1) Causes that produce results; 2) the four noble paths; 3) the spoken word of the Buddha; 4) meritorious thoughts with their mind and mental concomitants; 5) demeritorious thoughts with their mind and mental concomitants.
The Buddha became endowed with the above four kinds of phenomena (dhamma) as soon as he become a Buddha. Being endowed with analytical knowledge of phenomena, the Buddha knew discriminately and comprehensively about every phenomena and was able to expound on them to others. The great non-causative consciousness associated with knowledge that arises in the Buddha when his mind attends to the above five phenomena is the analytic knowledge of phenomena (dhamma-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) of the Buddha. In the case of noble ones (ariya), who are still training themselves to become Arahats, such as Ven. Ānanda, analytical knowledge of phenomena means the great meritorious consciousness associated with knowledge. The same applies with regard to the next two analytical knowledges.
3. The analytic knowledge of language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa). This is analytical knowledge of the natural language of the noble ones (ariya), that is, Māgadhī or Pāḷi, concerning the five kinds of meaning (attha) and the five kinds of phenomena (dhamma). The Buddha became endowed with the analytical knowledge of the natural language of noble ones (ariya). Being endowed with analytical knowledge of words and grammar of the natural language of the noble ones, the Buddha is able to teach it to others.
The five kinds of meaning (attha) and the five kinds of phenomena (dhamma) need a wealth of words. For each item, a wide range of vocabulary and grammatical forms and nuances of the natural language of the noble ones is at the facile command of the Buddha. For example, a single factor (dhamma): contact (phassa) is expressed in its various forms, such as the phasso (contact), phusanā (contacting), samphusanā (full contacting), to bring out its various intrinsic meanings. Likewise greed (lobha) is explained in more than 100 terms. See the Enumeration of Phenonema (Dhamma-saṅgaṇī). [The terms listed are actually synonyms, rather than explanations.]
4. The analytic knowledge of intuition (paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa). This is the analytical knowledge that the analytic knowledge of meaning (attha-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) has discriminative and comprehensive knowledge about results; that the analytic knowledge of phenomena (dhamma-paṭisambhā-ñāṇa) has discriminative and comprehensive knowledge about five phenomena (dhamma); that the analytic knowledge of language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) has analytical knowledge about words and grammar. Briefly put, it is knowledge about the three kinds of analytical knowledge, that knowledge which has all knowledge as object and considers them discriminately. The Buddha became endowed with this knowledge about the kinds of knowledge as soon as he became a Buddha.
The analytic knowledge of language (nirutti-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa) and the analytic knowledge of intuition (paṭibhāna-paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa), like the previous analytic knowledges (paṭisambhidhā-ñāṇa), are the great non-causative consciousness associated with knowledge (mahā-kiriya-mahā-kusala-ñāṇa).
The fourth of the four analytic knowledges (paṭisambhidhā-ñāṇa) discriminately knows the functions of the three other knowledges but is not able to discharge those functions itself. It is just like a preacher without a good voice, who is well versed in scriptural knowledge, and who is unable to preach as well as another good preacher who is gifted with a good voice but has scanty knowledge of the scriptures.
Two monastics learnt the art of teaching. One is poor in voice but intelligent; the other had a good voice but is not intelligent. The latter made a great name everywhere he teaches, the audience had a very good impression of him and say: “From the way this monastic preaches, he must be one who has committed to memory the Three Baskets.” When the learned monastic with a poor voice hears these remarks, he becomes jealous and says: “Well, you will find whether he is master of the Three Baskets when you hear him preach next time.” He implies that: “You are going to hear much the same stuff.” Yet whatever he might say about that popular preacher, he is just unable to preach as well as the one with a
Similarly, the analytic knowledge of intuition (paṭibhāna-samhhidā-ñāṇa) discriminately knows the functions of the three other analytical knowledges, but it cannot discharge these functions itself. This has been explained in the commentary on the Analysis of Analytical Knowledge (Paṭisambhidā-vibhaṅga, Vibh 15).
The Six Knowledges Unshared by Others
Six knowledges unshared by others (asādhāraṇa-ñāṇa), which are unique to the Buddha:
1. Knowledge of the disposition of others’ faculties (indriya-paro-pariyatta-ñāṇa).
2. Knowledge of the underlying tendencies (āsayānusaya-ñāṇa).
3. Knowledge of the twin miracle (yamaka-pāṭihāriya-ñāṇa).
4. Knowledge of the attainment of Great Compassion (Mahā-karuṇā samāpattiya-ñāṇa).
5. Knowledge of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa).
6. Unobstructed knowledge (anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa).
There are six kinds of knowledge which are possessed only by the Buddha and are not found in Paccekabuddhas or disciples, namely:
1. Knowledge of the disposition of others’ faculties, (indriya-paro-pariyatta-ñāṇa), is the knowledge that discusses the readiness or otherwise of an individual to understand the truth. By this special knowledge, the Buddha decides such and such a being has his faculties ripe enough to gain Awakening and is due for liberation. Here, faculties (indriya) means, faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom, five factors in all.
2. Knowledge of the underlying tendencies (āsayānusaya-ñāṇa), is the knowledge that discusses the natural bent and latent proclivities of individuals. Refer to the discussion of the Loka-vidu in the Nine Attributes of the Buddha in chapter 42a above. The term underlying tendencies (āsayānusaya) is a compound and may be rendered as “the seed-germ of an individual’s mental makeup.” By this special knowledge, the Buddha knows discriminately that such and such a being has such a natural bent of mind, such a latent potential for defilements that are dominant in his mental makeup.
It was due to the possession of the above two special knowledges that the Buddha could deliver the right message to the each person. Even Ven. Sāriputta, being not endowed with these special knowledges, could not know the state of readiness of his hearers to receive the message, i.e., about the ripeness or otherwise of the mental makeup of his hearers, with the result that his discourses, on a few occassions, fell flat on those listening.
3. Knowledge of the twin miracle (yamaka-pāṭihāriya-ñāṇa), is the knowledge that can bring about the twin miracle. On four occasions the Buddha employed this special knowledge, namely:
1. At the tree of Awakening, to clear away the doubt and conceit in the minds of Devas and Brahmas.
2. On his first visit to Kapilavatthu, to humble his kinsmen, the Sakyas.
3. At Sāvatthī, near the miraculous mango tree that grew and bore fruit on the same day it was planted by Kaṇḍa, the gardener, to humble the followers of other faiths.
4. On the occasion of the congregation concerning Pāthikaputta.
4. Knowledge of the attainment of Great Compassion (Mahā-karuṇā samāpattiya-ñāṇa), knowledge consisting of the Buddha-compassion on seeing the multitude struggling in the stormy ocean of Saṁsāra. He has great compassion for all beings that are living in the world which is like a burning prison. The knowledge that enables the Buddha to attend his compassionate mind to those beings is associated with dwelling in the absorption state of the attainment of Great Compassion (Mahā-karuṇa-samāpatti). At every night and every dawn, the Buddha enters into this absorption that consists of 24,000 billion thoughts.
5. Knowledge of omniscience (sabbaññuta-ñāṇa), this is the knowledge that comprehends all knowable things. The Buddha is called the All-knowing Buddha on account of this special knowledge, which is also called all-round vision (samanta-cakkhu). For details about this Buddha-knowledge refer to the Path of the Analytic Knowledges (Paṭisambhidā-magga).
6. Unobstructed knowledge (anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa), this is the knowledge that there is nothing that can stand in the way of the arising of the Buddha knowledge (natthi āvaraṇaṁ etassā ti anāvaraṁ). This unhampered special knowledge of the Buddha is an essential feature of omniscience (sabbaññuta-ñāṇa). It is called unobstructed knowledge (anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa) in the same sense as conviction (saddhā), effort (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā) are called faculties (indriya) because they are the controlling factors, each in its own way. They are also called powers (bala) because they overpower their respective opponents: lack of conviction, sloth, negligence, distraction and delusion.
These are the six knowledges unshared by others (asādhāraṇa-ñāṇa).
The Ten Powers
The Buddha has ten powers (dasabala-ñāṇa).
1. Skill in knowledge that understands what is appropriate as appropriate, and what is impossible as impossible (ṭhānāṭṭhāna-kosalla-ñāṇa).
2. Knowledge of the operation of productive deeds (kamma) in the three periods: past, present and future, as to the immediate results and contributory or subsidiary result (vipāka-ñāṇa).
3. Knowledge that understands the ways or the modes of practice that leads to the various forms of existence, and the practice that leads to Nibbāna (sabbattha-gāminī-paṭipadā-ñāṇa).
4. Knowledge that understands the various elements pertaining to living beings, the aggregates, the sense spheres, etc. as well as those pertaining to non-living things as to their species, genes, etc. (Aneka-dhātu-ñāṇa).
The Paccekabuddhas and the two chief disciples have some limited knowledge about the elements constituting living beings. They do not have knowledge of the various natures of non-living things. As for the Buddha, he understands what elements are responsible for the species of tree with a white stem, or for the species of tree with a dark stem; or for the species of tree with a dark smooth stem, or for the species of tree with thick bark; or for the species of tree with thin bark. He knows what particular elements make a certain species of tree have such and such leaves with such shape and colour, etc., what particular elements make a certain species of tree have flowers of a particular colour or of a particular smell, such as having a good smell or a bad smell, etc. He knows what particular elements make a certain species of tree have fruit of such and such shape, size, smell, and taste such as sweet, sour, hot or astringent. He knows what particular elements make a certain species of tree have thorns of such and such nature, such as sharp, blunt, straight, curved, red, black, white, brown, etc. He has knowledge of non-living things and their intrinsic nature such as these which are the province of the Buddha only, and are beyond the capabilities of Paccekabuddhas and disciples.
5. Knowledge of the different inclinations of beings (nānādhimuttika-ñāṇa).
6. Knowledge of the maturity and immaturity of the faculties in beings (indriya-paropariyattha-ñāṇa).
7. Knowledge concerning the defiling factors, and the purifying factors with regard to the absorptions (jhāna), deliverances, concentrations, attainments and knowledge of rising from absorption (jhāna-vimokkha-samādhi-samāpatti-ñāṇa).
8. Knowledge in remembering former existences (pubbe-nivāsānussati-ñāṇa).
9. Knowledge in perceiving with the divine eye how beings pass away and are reborn according to their actions (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa or dibba-cakkhu-ñāṇa).
10. Knowledge of the Arahat path (Arahatta-magga) through extinction of moral taints (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa).
1. First, the Buddha surveys the world with the first of the ten knowledges to see the beings who could possibly gain Awakening by examining whether there are the gross types of wrong view in them that render it impossible to gain the Arahat path (Arahatta-magga).
2. Next, he examines, by means of the second knowledge, the type of rebirth to see if they were born only with two good root causes (dvi-hetu) or with no root causes (ahetu), in which cases, the subject cannot gain Awakening in the present existence, being born with deficient merit.
3. Then he examines by the means of the third knowledge, the presence or otherwise of the five kinds of grave evil actions in the subject:
1. Killing one’s own mother.
2. Killing one’s own father.
3. Killing an Arahat.
4. Rupturing a Buddha’s blood vessels.
5. Causing schism in the Saṅgha.
After examining beings by means of the first three knowledges, to see the state of their past actions, their defilements and their resultants, whether they were handicapped for Awakening or not in these three areas, the Buddha attends to those not so handicapped.
4. He engages the fourth knowledge to ascertain the right type of discourse to be given to the person, considering the latter’s mental make up, the elements that
5. Then by means of the fifth knowledge, the Buddha examines the inherent inclination of the subject, regardless of sufficiency of effort on his part.
6. Having known the inclination of the subject, the Buddha examines, through the sixth knowledge, the quality of the faculties, such as conviction of the subject.
7. If the faculties are mature enough to gain absorption (jhāna) or the paths and fruitions, the Buddha would lose no time to go and deliver a discourse on the subject. He is able to do this because he is endowed with the seventh knowledge.
8. Having gone over the subject, the Buddha reviews, through the eighth knowledge, the past existences of the subject.
9. Through the ninth knowledge he reads the mind of the subject, reading other’s minds being part of the knowledge called the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu-ñāṇa).
10. Ascertaining the present state of mind of the subject, the Buddha preaches the doctrine to suit the subject, with a view to his attaining the Arahat path (Arahatta-magga). This is the final step the Buddha takes with the tenth knowledge (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa).
The Buddha discourses on the ten powers in the same order as he actually puts them to use for the benefit of the world at large. See the sub-commentary on the Collection of the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara-nikāya).
The fourteen Buddha knowledges therefore are: Knowledge of the four truths (catu-sacca); the four analytic knowledges (paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa); and the six unshared knowledges (asādharaṇa-ñāṇa). Out of those fourteen, knowledge of the four truths and the four analytic knowledges are attained by the disciples also, but the six unshared knowledges are purely within the province of the Buddha. In as much as the six unshared knowledges belong only to the Buddha, there are also eighteen Buddha attributes (āveṇika) that belong only to the Buddha.
Ledi Sayādaw’s Verses on the 18 Attributes
The late Ledi Sayādaw has composed a fine piece of devotional verse on the eighteen Buddha-attributes. The gist of which is given here:
May I be free from all dangers and depredations both internally and externally! There is no one, such as Māra or Āḷavaka who can endanger the life of the Buddha within the usual life period, adopted by all Buddhas, being four-fifths of the lifespan period of the epoch pertaining to each Buddha. There is no one, such as Mahissara, Brahma Baka, or an Asura, who can sully or dampen the all-knowing wisdom of the Buddha.
1. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, has the all-knowing wisdom that can visualize all knowable things of the past, extending over myriads of aeons, and not the slightest obstruction can mar this vision.
2. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, has the all-knowing wisdom that can visualize all knowable things of the future, extending over myriads of aeons, and not the slightest obstruction can mar this vision.
3. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, has the all-knowing wisdom that can visualize all knowable things that are taking place at present in the 31 planes of existence in all the infinite world-elements, and not the slightest destruction can mar this vision.
4. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, well-possessed of these three special attributes, has all bodily actions, in all postures and movements, preceeded by four kinds of full comprehension, and all the bodily actions closely follow the guidance of the fourfold comprehension.
5. All his verbal actions, all his utterances, are preceeded by the four kinds of full comprehension, and all the verbal actions closely follow the guidance of the fourfold comprehension.
6. All his mental actions, all his thoughts, are preceeded by the four kinds of full comprehension, and all the mental actions follow the guidance of the fourfold comprehension.
7. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, well-possessed of these six exclusive attributes, is never lacking, not having the slightest decline in the earnest desire that had arisen in him since his time as Bodhisatta Sumedha, to ferry across the floundering multitudes to the safe shore of Nibbāna, and in the will to achieve noble things beneficial to himself and to others, which is the exalted quality of accomplishment (kāma) itself.
8. His teaching, which has the sole object of liberating all deserving beings from the suffering round of existences, never falls short of the avowed objective.
9. His effort, which is rightly directed in three ways: the dauntless determination as Bodhisatta in being prepared to traverse an ocean of burning coals or of sharp stakes, laid over the entire surface of the universe which is 3,610,350 leagues wide, for the sake of attaining Buddhahood, which is the exalted quality of making effort (payatta) itself; the exclusive Buddha-knowledge consisting in the fourfold right efforts and the will to accomplish the five routine tasks set for himself every day, never shows the slightest decline.
10. His concentration in two aspects: the inherent firmness of mind that withstands the eight kinds of worldly conditions or vicissitudes that may befall him from any quarter, like Mount Meru withstands stormy winds that blow from the eight directions; the absorption power (appanā-samādhi) which is the very basis of all psychic powers (abhiññā), such as psychic power (iddhi-vidha), divine eye (dibba-cakkhu), knowing the minds of others (ceto-pariyāya), recollection of past lives (pubbe-nivāsānussati), knowing the deeds which cause rebirth (yathā-kammūpaga), knowing the future (anāgataṁsa), never show the slightest decline.
11. His wisdom that encompasses all happenings, like the rise and fall of conditional phenomena, taking place in the three worlds extending over the 10,000 world-element, which he surveys through the great diamond knowledge (mahā-vajira-ñāṇa), consisting of 24,000 billion times each day, never shows the slightest decline.
12. His release from the trammels of the world consists of five kinds: the four noble abidings in loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity with regard to the 10,000 world-element extending over the worlds of human beings, Devas, Brahmas and the four lower worlds; and the dwelling in the Arahat fruition absorption (Arahatta-phala-jhāna) which the Buddha is wont to resort to even in odd moments such as during recesses in delivering discourses, which consists of 24,000 billion times each day, never shows the slightest decline.
13. The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, well possessed of these twelve exclusive attributes, never indulges in light-hearted deeds, speech or thoughts.
14. He never indulges in any hasty action that is liable to be censured by the wise as thoughtless or ill-considered conduct.
15. He never commits any action that is liable to be called inadequate or uncomprehensive.
16. He never commits any action that is liable to be called impulsive by the wise.
17. He never indulges in the slightest remiss concerning his self-assigned task of bringing benefit to himself and to the world at large.
18. He never lets any moment pass without being mindful of the six sense objects that come within cognisance of the six sense spheres.
The Perfectly Self-Awakened One, endowed with the six exalted qualities, also counted in eight ways, well-possessed of these eighteen exclusive attributes, is not liable to be assailed by anyone, either against his life or against the all-knowing wisdom.
The above remarks about the eighteen Buddha-attributes are true indeed. I pay homage to the Buddha who is possessed of these attributes. May this meritorious verbal action bring
In conclusion, the analytic knowledges (paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa), the unshared knowledges (asādhāraṇa-ñāṇa) and the ten powers (dasa-bala-ñāṇa), etc., are merely samples of the greatness of the Buddha’s knowledge. Just as a drop of the sea water verifies the salty taste of the sea, so also the above special attributes are merely indicative of the profundity of the Buddha’s knowledge and noble attributes which we have not yet mentioned in this work.