On I-III: Further Explanation of Words and Phrases

[A section that was placed here on the perfections has been moved to a more suitable position in The First Treatise on the Perfections, at the beginning of 11, and is entitled: What is the Classification of the Perfections?]

Three Types of Bodhisattas

[Again another important section which describes the three types of Bodhisattas is moved from a remote section to near the top of the Further Explanations.]

Even at the moment of receiving the prophecy, as in the case of the recluse Sumedha, the Bodhisattas are of three types:

1. The Bodhisatta who attains paths and fruitions after hearing a small part of a discourse on the Dhamma (ugghaṭitaññū).

2. The Bodhisatta who realizes paths and fruitions after hearing most of a discourse of the Dhamma (vipañcitaññū).

3. The Bodhisatta who gradually comes to comprehend the truth after hearing all of a discourse of the Dhamma (neyya).

Of these three types, the Bodhisattas who understand after hearing a small part of a discourse (ugghaṭitaññū) are those who, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple (sāvaka-bodhi) in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to attain the Arahat fruition together with the six super powers (abhiññā) and the four kinds of analytical knowledge (paṭisambhidā-ñāṇa), understand even before the end of the third line of a verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This type of Bodhisatta is also called the Bodhisatta with the factor of predominant wisdom (paññādhika). With this type of Bodhisatta, wisdom is the strongest.

The Bodhisattas who understand after hearing most of a discourse (vipañcitaññū) are those who, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to become an Arahat together with the six super powers and four kinds of analytical knowledge, understand before the end of the fourth line of a verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This type of Bodhisatta is also called the Bodhisatta with the factor of predominant faith (saddhādhika). With this type of Bodhisatta, wisdom is medial.

The Bodhisattas who gradually comes to comprehend the truth (neyya) are those who, if they wish to achieve the Awakening of a disciple in the very existence they receive the prophecy, have the special supportive merit to become an Arahat together with six super powers and four kinds of analytical knowledge, at the end of the whole verse of four lines delivered by a Buddha. This type of Bodhisatta is also called the Bodhisatta with the factor of predominant energy (viriyādhika). With this type of Bodhisatta wisdom is weakest.

All the three types of Bodhisattas make the mental resolution to become a Buddha for immeasurable aeons before receiving the definite prophecy. However, after receiving the definite prophecy, they fulfil the perfections and attain Awakening according to the necessary time schedule.

The paddy species which flowers, bears seeds and ripens only after a certain period of time even when with utmost effort of watering, etc., will not yield a crop at a date earlier than the natural period of flowering, bearing seeds and ripening. In the same way, all the various types of Bodhisattas, by no means become Buddhas before they have completed the allotted time for fulfilment of the perfections even if they strive daily with more and more energy to fulfil the perfections (pāramī), charity (cāga) and good conduct (cariyā), because their wisdom has not yet reached maturity, and their accumulation of Buddha-making factors is not complete yet.

Therefore, it should be clearly understood that the perfections become fulfilled only after 4 immeasurables and 100,000 aeons for a Bodhisatta with predominant wisdom; 8 immeasurables and 100,000 aeons for a Bodhisatta with predominant faith; and 16 immeasurables and 100,000 aeons for a Bodhisatta with predominant energy.

Aeons

The Cosmic Aeon

It is said in the Chronicles of the Buddhas (Buddha-vaṁsa, Bv 2.1): Kappe ca sata-sahasse, caturo ca asaṅkhiye, “100,000 aeons, and four immeasurable periods.” The duration of an aeon (kappa) cannot be calculated by the number of years. It is known only by analogy. Suppose there is a big granary which is one league each in length, breath and height and which is full of tiny mustard seeds. You throw out just one seed each century. When all the mustard seeds have been thrown out, the period called an aeon (kappa) has not come to an end yet. An immeasurable period (asaṅkhyeyya) in this context means an immeasurable amount of great aeons. A great aeon (mahā-kappa) is the time it takes for the whole cycle of evolution and devolution.

An aeon/period (kappa) has six definitions:

1. A great aeon (mahā-kappa).

2. An immeasurable part of an aeon (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa).

3. An inclusive period (antara-kappa).

4. A lifetime (āyu-kappa).

5. A decreasing period (hāyana-kappa).

6. An increasing period (vaddhana-kappa).

[Because it is confusing indeed to have kappa translated by one word when it refers to two different time-scales, I have used aeon (kappa) for the time taken by one complete evolution and devolution; and period (kappa) for sections within that time-scale.]

One great aeon (mahā-kappa) is made up of four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa): 1) The period in the [1503] process of dissolution (saṁvaṭṭa-kappa); 2) the period in the state of dissolution (saṁvaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-kappa); 3) the period in the process of evolution (vivaṭṭa-kappa); and 4) the period in the state of evolution (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-kappa). That is to say, these four immeasurable periods in the process and state of dissolution, and in the process and state of evolution, make one great aeon (mahā-kappa).

Of these four immeasurable periods, the period in the process of dissolution (saṁvaṭṭa-kappa) is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain, which heralds the dissolution of the aeon till the extinction by flames, if the aeon is to be dissolved by fire; or till the receding of floods, if the aeon is to be dissolved by water; or till the cessation of storms, if the aeon is to be dissolved by the air element.

The period in the state of dissolution (saṁvaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-kappa) is the period beginning from the moment of the dissolution of the world by fire, water or the air element till the falling of the great rain which heralds the evolution of a new world.

The period in the process of evolution (vivaṭṭa-kappa) is the period beginning from the falling of the great rain which heralds the evolution of the new world till the appearance of the sun, the moon, and the stars and planets.

The period in the state of evolution (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-kappa) is the period beginning from the appearance of the sun, moon, stars and planets to the falling of the great rain which heralds the dissolution of the world.

There are two kinds of period-dissolving rain. The first kind is the great rain which falls in any period when it is nearing its dissolution either by fire, water or the air element. First, there is a great downpour of rain all over the universe which is to be dissolved. Then, taking advantage of the rain, people start cultivation. When plants which are big enough for cattle to feed on appear the rain ceases completely. It is the rain which heralds the dissolution of an aeon.

The second kind is also a great downpour, but it falls when a period is to be dissolved by water. It is not an ordinary rainfall, but a very unusual one, for it has the power to smash even a rocky mountain into smithereens.

An elaborate description of the dissolution of a period by fire, water or the air element is given in the chapter on the Deep Knowledge about Previous Lives (Pubbe-nivāsānussati-abhiññā) in the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga, Vis XIII, 4).

The above-mentioned four immeasurable periods are of the same duration, which cannot be reckoned in terms of years. That is why they are known as periods of incalculable length (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa). These four immeasurable periods constitute one great aeon (mahā-kappa).

At the beginning of the immeasurable period in the state of evolution (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-asaṅkhyeyya-kappa), that is, at the beginning of the world, people live for an incalculable (asaṅkhyeyya) number of years. As time goes on, they are overcome by such mental defilements as greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), etc. and consequently their lifespan gradually decreases until it becomes only ten years. Such a period of decrease is called a decreasing period (hāyana-kappa).

On the contrary, owing to the occurrence and uplift of such wholesome principles as the sublime states of mind such as loving-kindness (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), etc., the lifespan of generations of their descendents doubles up gradually until it reaches an incalculable number of years. Such a period of increase in lifespan from ten years to incalculable years is called an increasing period (vaddhana-kappa).

For further details of these two periods of increase and decrease in the human lifespan, refer to the Discourse about the Wheel-Turning Monarch (Cakka-vatti-sutta, DN 26).

Thus, the lifespan of human beings goes up and down between ten years and an incalculable number of years [1504] as they develop meritoriousness or are overcome by demeritoriousness. A pair of lifespans, an increasing one and a decreasing one, is called an inclusive period (antara-kappa).

At the beginning of the world, when people’s lifespan declines from incalculable years to ten years, a change of period takes place. If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of greed, then there occurs scarcity of food and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the period. Such a round of time is called a period of famine (dubbhikkhantara-kappa).

If the decline is due to the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment, then there occurs an epidemic of diseases and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the period. Such a round of time is called a period of diseases (rogantara-kappa).

If the decline of lifespan is due to the particularly overpowering state of hatred, then there occur killings of one another with arms, and all evil persons perish during the last seven days of the period. Such a round of time is called a period of weapons (satthantara-kappa).

According to the sub-commentary to the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga), however, a period of diseases (rogantara-kappa) is brought about by the particularly overpowering state of greed; a period of weapons (satthantara-kappa) by the particularly overpowering state of hatred; and a period of famine (dubbhikkhantara-kappa) by the particularly overpowering state of bewilderment; either way, evil persons perish.

The naming of each pair of lifespans – one increasing and the other decreasing – as an inclusive period (antara-kappa) may be explained thus: Before all is dissolved either by fire, water or the air element at the end of the devolving immeasurable period (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-asaṅkhyeyya-kappa) and whenever the lifespan becomes ten years, all evil persons perish through famine, diseases or weapons. In accordance with this statement, here it refers to the inclusive period of decrease between one period of total destruction and another.

After the calamity that happens during the final seven days of each inclusive period (antara-kappa), the name: The period ending in disease (rogantara-kappa), the period ended by weapons (satthantara-kappa) or the period ending in famine (dubbhikkhantara-kappa), is given to this period of misfortune, which falls before the ten years lifespan, not in the whole world, but in a limited region, such as a town or a village.

If there appears an epidemic of diseases, we say there is a period ending in disease (rogantara-kappa) in that region; if there is an outbreak of war, we say there is a period ended by weapons (satthantara-kappa) in that region; if there occurs starvation, we say there is a period ending in famine (dubbhikkhantara-kappa) in that region. Such a saying is just figurative because the regional incident is similar to the cosmic. When in chanting one mentions “three periods” from which one wishes to be free, one is usually referring to these three great disasters.

At the completion of 64 inclusive periods (antara-kappa), each inclusive period consisting of a pair of increasing and decreasing periods, an evolving immeasurable period (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-asaṅkhyeyya-kappa) comes to an end. Since there are no living beings in human and celestial realms during the immeasurable period in the process of dissolution, the immeasurable period in the state of dissolution and the immeasurable period in the state of evolution, these period are not reckoned in terms of inclusive periods (antara-kappa), which consists of a set of increasing and decreasing periods. But it should be noted that each of these immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa), lasting as long as 64 inclusive periods (antara-kappa), are of the same duration as an evolving immeasurable period (vivaṭṭaṭṭhāyi-asaṅkhyeyya-kappa).

The Life Aeon

A life aeon (āyu-kappa) means a period which is reckoned in accordance with the span of life (āyu) of that period. If the lifespan is 100, a century is a life aeon; if it is 1,000, a millennium is a life aeon.

When the Buddha said (DN 16): “Ānanda, I have developed the four bases of psychic power (iddhi-pada), if I so desire, I can live either a whole period (kappa) or a little more than a period,” the period therein should be taken as a life period (āyu-kappa), which is the duration of the life of people living during that period. It is explained in the commentary to the section on the eights of the Collection of the Numerical Discourses (Aṅguttara-nikāya, AN 8) that when the Buddha made such a declaration he meant to say that he could live 100 years or a little more if he so desired. [1505]

Ven. Mahāsiva, however, said: “The life period (āyu-kappa) here is to be taken as the great aeon (mahā-kappa) called auspicious (bhaddaka).” He said so because he held that the productive deeds (kamma) that cause rebirth in the final existence of a Buddha have the power of prolonging his lifespan for incalculable years and because it is mentioned in the Pāḷi texts that the fruition-attainment that conditions and controls the life-sustaining mental process (āyu-pālaka-phala-samāpatti), which is called the life process (āyu-saṅkhāra), can ward off all dangers. But Ven. Mahāsiva’s view is not accepted by the commentators.

The Section on a Schism in the Saṅgha (Saṅgha-bhedakakkhandhaka) of the Vinaya Short Division (Cūḷa-vagga, Vin Cv 7) states: “He who causes a schism of the Saṅgha is reborn in Niraya, the realms of continuous suffering, and suffers there for a whole aeon.” “That aeon is the lifespan of the Avīci, the lowest realm of continuous suffering,” explains the commentary. The lifespan of the Avīci inmates is equal to one eightieth of a great aeon (mahā-kappa), according to the sub-commentary in Thirteen Sections (Terasa-kaṇḍa-ṭīkā), a voluminous sub-commentary on the Vinaya. In the same work, it is particularly mentioned that one eightieth of that duration should be reckoned as an inclusive period (antara-kappa) of Avīci inmates. Therefore, it follows that one great aeon (mahā-kappa) is made up of 80 inclusive periods (antara-kappa) according to the reckoning of Avīci inmates.

It may be clarified that, as mentioned above, one great aeon (mahā-kappa) has four immeasurable periods (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa), and one immeasurable aeon (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa) has 64 inclusive periods (antara-kappa). Therefore, one great aeon is equivalent to 256 inclusive periods (antara-kappa) by human calculations.

If 256 is divided by 80, the result is 3.2 therefore, 3.2 inclusive periods (antara-kappa) of human beings make one inclusive period of Avīci inmates.

In Avīci there are no evolving and dissolving aeons as in the human world. Since it is the place that knows suffering at all times the end of each dissolving period is not marked with the three periods of misfortune. One eightieth of a great aeon (mahā-kappa), which is the lifespan of the Avīci inmates, is their inclusive period (antara-kappa). Therefore, by one inclusive period of Avīci is meant 3.2 inclusive periods of human beings.

In this way, it may be assumed that one immeasurable aeon (asaṅkhyeyya-kappa) is equal to 64 inclusive periods (antara-kappa) of human beings and 20 inclusive periods of Avīci inmates. Therefore, when some Pāḷi texts such as the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga), the sub-commentary, the Explanation of the Meaning of the Abhidhamma (Abhidhammattha-vibhāvanī), etc. say that one immeasurable aeon contains either 64 or 20 inclusive periods (antara-kappa), the figures do not contradict each other. The difference between the numbers lies only in the manner of calculation. It should be noted that the two are of the same length of time.

A particularly noteworthy thing is a statement in the commentary to the Analysis (Vibhaṅga). In the Analysis of Knowledge (Ñāṇa-vibhaṅga, Vibh 16), it is said: “Only the act of causing schism in the Saṅgha (Saṅgha-bhedaka-kamma), results in suffering for a whole period (kappa). Should a man, owing to such an act, be reborn in Avīci at the beginning or in the middle of the period (kappa), he would gain release only when the period (kappa) dissolves. If he were reborn in that realm of suffering today and if the period (kappa) dissolves tomorrow he should then suffer just one day and would be free tomorrow. But in fact there is no such possibility.”

On account of this statement, there are some who opine that: “The act of causing schism in the Saṅgha (Saṅgha-bhedaka-kamma) leads to Niraya for the whole period (kappa), in the sense of a great aeon (mahā-kappa); he who commits this productive deed (kamma) gains freedom only when the aeon dissolves. As a matter of fact, the expression lasting for the whole aeon (kappaṭṭhitiya) is explained in the Analyses (Vibhaṅga) commentary only in a general manner; it does not emphatically mention the words lasting for the whole great aeon (mahā-kappaṭṭhitiya). The expression lasting for the whole aeon is based on a verse in the Vinaya Short Division (Cūḷa-vagga, Vin Cv 7, PTS 2.205) which reads: “Having destroyed the unity of the Saṅgha, one suffers in Niraya for the whole period (kappa).” Therefore, the period (kappa) here should be taken only as a life period (āyu-kappa) but not as a great aeon (mahā-kappa). In the 13th chapter of the Points for Discussion (Kathā-vatthu) commentary, it is said, in dealing with the period (kappa) that the verse has been composed with reference to the life aeon (āyu-kappa) of the Avīci inmates which is only one eightieth of a great aeon (mahā-kappa).

Empty and Non-Empty Aeons

The great aeon is divided into two classes: 1) empty aeon (suñña-kappa) and 2) non-empty aeon (asuñña-kappa). [1506] Of these two, the aeon in which Buddhas do not appear is an empty aeon (suñña-kappa); it means an aeon which is void of a Buddha. The aeon in which Buddhas appear is a non-empty aeon (asuñña-kappa); it means the aeon which is not void of a Buddha.

Though Buddhas do not appear in an empty aeon, that there can be the appearance of Independent Buddhas and Universal Monarchs may be inferred from the Traditions about the Edler Upāli (Upālitthera-apadāna, Tha-ap 8). In the Traditions about the Edler Upāli and its commentary it is said that two aeons prior to this one, Prince Khattiya, the son of King Añjasa, on his departure from a park, committed an offence against the Paccekabuddha Devala. No text mentions the appearance of a Buddha in that aeon.

In the commentary on the Traditions about the Elder Bhaddaji (Bhaddajitthera-apādāna, Tha-ap 560), too, it is stated that the venerable had given alms food to 500 Paccekabuddhas in an empty aeon (suñña-kappa). It is clear from these texts that Paccekabuddhas appear in empty aeons.

Again, the Traditions about Kusumāsaniya (Kusumāsaniya-apādāna, Tha-ap 128) mentions that the “future Kusumāsaniya was reborn as the Universal Monarch Varadassī in the aeon that immediately followed.”

The Traditions about the Supporter Tiṇasanthara (Tiṇasanthara-dāyakatthera-apadāna, Tha-ap 78) of the same work, it also says that the “future Tiṇasanthara was reborn as the Universal Monarch Migasammata in the second aeon prior to the present one,” suggesting that there is the possibility of the appearance of Universal Monarchs in an empty aeon.

The non-empty aeon in which Buddhas appear is divided into five classes:

1. The essential aeon in which a single Buddha appears (sāra-kappa).

2. a fine aeon in which two Buddhas appear (maṇḍa-kappa).

3. The noble aeon in which three Buddhas appear (vara-kappa).

4. The essential and fine aeon in which four Buddhas appear (sāra-maṇḍa-kappa).

5. The Auspicious aeon in which five Buddhas appear (Bhadda-kappa).

The aeon that witnessed the existence of Sumedha, as mentioned in the chapter on the Brahmin Sumedha (see chapter III), is an essential and fine aeon in which four Buddhas appear.

Amaravatī

The city of Amaravatī came into existence after the appearance of three Buddhas: Taṇhaṅkara, Medhaṅkara, and Saraṇaṅkara, and before the appearance of Dīpaṅkara. Amarā means “god,” an immortal being, and vatī means “possessing,” hence, “the great city possessed by the gods.”

It is stated in the Chapter about Medicines (Bhesajjakkhandhaka, Vin Mv 6) and other places that, as soon as the Brahmins Sunidha and Vassakāra planned to found the city of Pāṭaliputta, gods arrived first and distributed among themselves plots of land. Those plots of land occupied by gods of great power became residences of princes, ministers and wealthy persons of high rank; those plots of land occupied by gods of medium power became residences of people of medium rank and those plots of land occupied by gods of little power became residences of people of low rank.

From this statement, it may be supposed that gods arrived in hosts to take up residence for themselves and occupied them where a great royal city was to be established. Amaravatī was so named to denote the presence of gods who marked out their own locations in the city and protect them for their habitation.

The Pāḷi ending -vatī signifies possession in abundance. In this world, those who have just little wealth are not called wealthy men but those who possess wealth much more than others are called so. Therefore, the name Amaravatī indicates that, as it was a great royal residential city, it was occupied and protected by a large number of highly powerful gods.

Voluntary Passing Away

Voluntary passing away by self-determination (adhimutti-maraṇa). It is the kind of death that takes place as soon as one resolves: “May death come upon me.” But such a death can happen only to Bodhisattas, and not to others.

Sometimes a Bodhisatta is reborn in a Deva or a Brahma world where the span of life is extremely long. He is aware of the fact that, living in a celestial world, he has no chance whatsoever to fulfil and cultivate the perfections, charity and practices, and, therefore, he feels such that a lengthy life in a celestial abode is boring. Then, after entering his mansion, he shuts his eyes and no sooner has he resolved: “May my life-faculty cease to be,” than he experiences the impact of death and passes away from that divine realm. His resolution materialises partly because he has little attachment to his body, as he has particularly conditioned the continuity of his body by attaining higher knowledge and partly because his resolution, based on an overwhelming compassion for beings, is intense and pure.

As he has control of his mind so has he control of his deeds. Accordingly, when he dies such a voluntary death, he is reborn in the human world as a prince, a Brahmin, etc., so that he can fulfil any of the perfections he wishes to. That is why, though our Bodhisatta Gotama lived in many existences in the Brahma abode without losing his attainment of absorption (jhāna), he existed only for a short time in that Brahma world, as he died voluntarily. He passed away from the Brahma existence into the human existence and build up the elements of the perfections.