More Reflections
Ten Important Rules of Enunciation
The noble practice is expounded in words and phrases that are perfect. In this matter there are ten important rules of enunciation of words. They are:
1. Unstressed syllables (sithila-akkhara), e.g. ka, ga, ca, ja, ṭa, ḍa, ta, da, pa, ba.
2. Stressed syllables (dhanita-akkhara), e.g. kha, gha, cha, jha, ṭha, ḍha, tha, dha, pha, bha.
3. Syllables associated with long vowels (dīgha-akkhara), e.g. kā, kī, kū, ke, ko, etc.
4. Syllables associated with short vowels (rassa-akkhara), e.g. ka, ki, ku, etc.
5. Weighty syllables (garu-akkhara), all the long syllables and short syllables with conjunct-consonants trailing behind belong to this class, e.g. in santa (sa-anta): the short-sounding syllable, sa, becomes san here, which is then a weighty syllable (garu-akkhara).
6. All other short-sounding syllables (lahu-akkhara or rassa-akkhara) with no conjunct-consonants following.
7. Nasal sounds uttered with a closed mouth (niggahīta-akkhara): the sound being produced by closing the mouth letting the sound escape through the nose is called niggahīta, and is represented by ṁ.
8. Sounds uttered with the mouth opened (vimutta-akkhara): e.g. kā, gā, etc.
9. Two successive sounds with a connected sound (sambandha-akkhara): e.g. in upasampadāpekkho, no pause is to intervene between dā- and -pek, but the whole word is to be uttered without a break in between.
10. Separated sounds (vavatthita-akkhara): e.g. in suṇātu me, there must be a pause between suṇātu and me.
The above ten rules are called the ten discernments of syllables (vyañjana-buddhi). They are summarized in a verse in a Vinaya commentary: [I have been unable to find the verse. I have included a translation for ease of understanding.]
Sithila-dhanitañ-ca dīgha-rassaṁ,
lahuka-garukañ-ca niggahītaṁ;
sambaddhaṁ vavatthitaṁ vimuttaṁ:
dasadhā vyañjana-buddhiyā pabhedo.
Unstressed, stressed, long, short, light, heavy and nasal; connected, separated, open: this is the analysis of the tenfold discernment of syllables.
Syllables (vyañjana) means the words that are uttered as vocal expressions of the mind. Discernment of syllables (vyañjana-buddhi) means the mind and mental concomitants that cause the utterance of words. The words thus uttered also are called discernments of syllables (vyañjana-buddhi) in a metaphorical sense.
It is not all the languages that conform to the above ten rules of enunciation. For instance, in Tamil only one or two of the rules are met with. In Kirāta, the language of a mountain people, there are no labial sounds. In Yun (?) every word is pronounced heavily. In Persian (Pārasika) all words are pronounced as nasal (niggahīta). A discourse made by anyone in those tongues is therefore deficient in the linguistic aspect.
The Buddha expounds the doctrine (pariyatti) in accordance with the ten rules of enunciation. Hence in the doctrine the noble practice is perfect in words and phrases.
The perfection of the words and phrases is discussed along with the grammatical rules, such as conduit (netti), etc., in The Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga) and its great sub-commentary (mahā-ṭīkā), other commentaries and sub-commentaries. Here we are not going into these details.
The Cosmos
A world-element [This is moved out of the text and into the Further Explanations.]
In a world-element, the earth’s thickness is 240,000 leagues, the upper half of it being earth and the lower half being rock in structure.
The earth is supported by a mass of water which is 480,000 leagues in thickness. Beneath the mass of water there is the mass of air which is 960,000 leagues supporting it. And beneath the mass of air is the infinite expanse of space. This is the foundational structure of a world-element.
At the centre of the earth’s surface, there arises Mount Sineru. The lower part of which is submerged in the ocean that is 84,000 leagues deep and rises 84,000 leagues above the water.
1. Encircling Mount Sineru, there is the first ring of mountains called Yugandhara, half of which, 42,000 leagues is submerged in the ocean and half of which, 42,000 leagues rise up above the water.
2. Beyond the first ring of Yugandhara mountains there is the second ring of mountains called Īsadhara of which 21,000 leagues is submerged in the ocean and 21,000 leagues rise up above the water.
3. Beyond the second ring of Īsadhara mountains there is the third ring of mountains called Karavīka of which 10,500 leagues is submerged in the ocean and 10,500 leagues rise up above the water.
4. Beyond the third ring of Karavīka mountains there is the fourth ring of mountains called Sudassana of which 5,250 leagues is submerged in the water and 5,250 leagues rise up above the water.
5. Beyond the fourth ring of Sudassana mountains there is the fifth ring of mountains called Nemindhara of which 2,625 leagues is submerged in the ocean and 2,625 leagues rise up above the water.
6. Beyond the fifth ring of Nemindhara mountains there is the sixth ring of mountains called Vinataka of which 1,312 leagues is submerged in the ocean and 1,312 leagues rise up above the water.
7. Beyond the sixth ring of Vinataka mountains there is the seventh ring of mountains called Assakaṇṇa of which 656 leagues is submerged in the ocean and 656 leagues rise up above the water.
Between Mount Sineru and the encircling rings of mountains, there are seven rings of rivers called Sīdā.
In the ocean, lying to the southern side of Mount Sineru, there is the southern island continent called Jambudīpa, called after the Rose Apple tree growing at the forefront of the island, and this island is surrounded by 500 lesser islands.
Similarly, in the ocean, lying to the western side of Mount Sineru, there is the western island continent called Aparagoyāna; on the northern side, the northern island continent of Uttarakuru; add on the eastern side, the eastern island continent called Pubbavideha, each of them surrounded by 500 lesser islands.
In the southern island continent of Jambūdīpa, the Himavanta mountains are 500 leagues high and 3,000 leagues broad, lengthwise and breathwise. It is graced by 84,000 peaks.
The Rose Apple tree growing at the forefront of Jambūdīpa island continent is of these dimensions: Its crown is fifteen leagues across; from the ground up to the trunk where the big boughs branch out, the height of the trunk is 50 leagues, the big boughs are each 50 leagues long, each with a foliage 100 leagues across, and 100 leagues high.
Of the same dimensions, there are the following six great trees which last till the end of the world-element: The Trumpet flower tree in the realm of the Asuras at the old site of the Tāvatiṁsa Devas, at the foot of Mount Sineru; the Silk Cotton tree in the realm of Garuḍas; the Kadamba tree in the western island continent; the Wishing tree in the northern island continent; the Rain tree in the eastern island continent; and the Indian Coral tree in the Tāvatiṁsa Realm.
The circular ring of mountains that marks the limit of the universe has 82,000 leagues submerged under the ocean and 82,000 leagues rising up above the water.
The shape of the Jambūdīpa island continent is a trapezium, the shape of the front purl of a bullock-cart; the western island continent is of the shape of a circular brass mirror; the eastern island continent is a crescent; and the northern island continent is a square. The inhabitants of those island continents are said to have faces that have the same shape as that of the respective island continents. This information is from the sub-commentary to the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga), Vol. I.
In each world-element there is a mansion of the moon which has a diameter of 49 leagues; and a mansion of the sun which has a diameter of 50 leagues.
The realm of the Tāvatiṁsa Devas, the realm of the Asuras, the Avīci Niraya, the Jambūdīpa island continent, each of these four places is 10,000 leagues wide. They are called the four areas of 10,000 leagues width.
The northern island continent is 7,000 leagues wide; the eastern island continent is of the same size; the western island continent is 8,000 leagues wide.
All the above features constitute one world-element. The void spaces where three of the world-elements touch one another are the desolate regions between the worlds (lokantarika).
In each world-element, the three lower worlds: the animal world, the Petas’ realm and the realm of the Asuras, have their abodes on the earth, side by side with the human world. Underneath the layer of earth lie the eight Niraya realms, each below the other, and each surrounded by lesser realms of continuous suffering called auxiliary (ussada) Nirayas. The Niraya realms, the animal world, the Petas realm and the realm of the Asuras are called the four lower worlds (apāya).
The human world is located on the earth. The Deva realm of the Four Great Kings is located on the summit of Mount Yugandhara, at half the height of Mount Sineru. The
Above the six Deva realms pertaining to the sensuous sphere, there are three Brahma realms of Brahmas’ retinue (Brahma-pārisajjā), Brahmas’ ministers (Brahma-purohitā) and Great Brahmas (Mahā-brahma) which are the three Brahma realms pertaining to the first absorption (jhāna) of the form realm (rūpāvacara). They are on the same plane.
Above the three Brahma realms pertaining to the first absorption (jhāna) of the form realms, there are the three Brahma realms pertaining to the second absorption (jhāna) of the form realm on the same plane: Brahmas of limited radiance (Parittābhā), Brahmas of measureless radiance (Appamāṇābhā), and Brahmas of streaming radiance (Abhassarā).
Above the three Brahma realms pertaining to the second absorption (jhāna) of the form realm, there are the three Brahma realms pertaining to the third absorption (jhāna) of the form realm on the same plane: Brahmas of limited glory (Paritta-subhā), Brahmas of measureless glory (Appamāṇa-subha), and Brahmas of refulgent glory (Subha-kiṇṇa).
Above these realms there are two Brahma realms also pertaining to the form realm on the same level: Very Fruitful (Vehapphala) and Non-percipient beings (Asañña-satta). Above these are the Bathed in their own Prosperity (Avihā), the Untormenting (Atappā), the Fair-to-see (Sudassā), the Clear-sighted (Sudassī) and the Supreme (Akaniṭṭha); five pure Abodes, lying one above the other successively. The Very Fruitful, Non-percipient and the Five Pure Abodes pertain to the fourth absorption (jhāna) of the form realm. Thus there are altogether sixteen Brahma realms pertaining to the form realm.
Above the sixteen Brahma realms pertaining to the form realm, there are the four Brahma realms pertaining to the formless realm: Infinity of Space (Ākāsānañcāyatana), Infinity of Consciousness (Viññāṇañcāyatana), Nothingness (Ākiñcaññāyatana), and Neither-Consciousness-nor-Non-Consciousness (Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana), lying one above the other successively.
Thus, there are sixteen Brahma realms of the form realm and four Brahma realms of formless realm, altogether making 20 Brahma realms. When the eleven realms of the sensuous sphere are added to them, there are the 31 realms in a world-element. This is a brief description of their location.
The Eight Causes of Pregnancy
Possible
1. By copulating.
2. By coming into physical contact.
3. By inserting a man’s loin cloth into the vagina.
4. By swallowing the semen.
5. By stroking the navel.
6. By seeing the male’s appearance.
7. By hearing the male’s sound.
8. By getting the male’s odour.
Of these,
1. Pregnancy through copulation is explicit.
2. Some women develop strong sexual feeling when the monthly period comes, pull men’s hands and hair-knot, and stroke their limbs, big and small, and take pleasure thereby, which makes her pregnant. Thus, through physical contact pregnancy happens.
3. During the lifetime of the Buddha, the monk Udāyī gazed at the private parts of his ex-wife and had a discharge of semen; he asked her to wash the soiled robe. She swallowed part of the semen and put part of it together with the robe into her vagina. By so doing, she became pregnant. Thus, through the insertion of men’s loin cloth into the vagina, pregnancy takes place.
4. A Birth Story (Jātaka) tells of a doe, the mother of Migasiṅga the recluse. When she was in heat she came to the place where the old recluse, Migasiṅga’s father, urinated, and took the urine together with the semen. By so doing she became pregnant and gave birth to the baby Migasiṅga. Thus, through the swallowing of semen pregnancy occurs.
5. In the Birth Story about the Wise Suvaṇṇasāma (Suvaṇṇasāma-jātaka, Ja 540), Sakka, foreseeing that the Bodhisatta’s parents would become blind, and wanting them to have a son, asked the wise recluse Dukūla whether sexual intercourse was permissible to recluses. When the reply was: “Whether it is permissible or not, we became ascetics because we do not want to do that,” Sakka told him to stroke Pārikā’s navel during menstruation. Dukūla did as he was told and Pārikā became pregnant and gave birth to Bodhisatta Suvaṇṇasāma. Thus, stroking a
6. Being deprived of copulation with men, some women in this world who eye men lustfully while on their periods and even staying at home can become pregnant. In Ceylon there was a court lady, to whom the same thing happened. Thus, through the sight of the male’s appearance pregnancy happens.
7. No male is known among the pond herons. When they hear thunder and are in heat, they become pregnant. Sometimes pregnancy occurs to hens on hearing the crowing of a cock. Similarly, pregnancy happens to cows as they hear the bellowing of a bull. Thus, through the hearing of the male’s sound pregnancy takes place.
8. Sometimes, cows conceive when they get the smell of a bull. Thus, through the male’s odour, pregnancy takes place.
These eight causes for pregnancy should particularly be noted.