3. How Many Perfections Are There?

In accordance with the teaching (Bv 1.76):

Dānaṁ sīlañ-ca nekkhamaṁ, paññā viriyena pañcamaṁ,
khantī saccam-adhiṭṭhānaṁ, mettupekkhā ti te dasa. [51]

There are ten perfections (pāramī): generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, forbearance, truthfulness, resolution, loving-kindness and equanimity.

4. In What Sequence Are the Perfections Arranged?

There are five ways of arranging doctrinal points in sequential order:

For example, with reference to conception, it is stated in the texts (SN 10.1), passim: For womb-born creatures, the first stage is the fluid stage of kalala for seven days, the second is the frothy stage of abbuda for seven days (Paṭhamaṁ kalalaṁ hoti, kalalā hoti abbudaṁ), etc. the third stage of pesi takes the form of a lump of flesh, and so on. This form of teaching, in sequence of events as they actually take place, is known as the order of actual happening.

For example, with reference to defilements, it is stated in the text (Dhs 1, 8. PTS 1): Here are phenomena which are to be abandoned through the first stage of the path; and there are phenomena which are to be abandoned through the three higher stages of the path (dassanena pahātabbā dhammā, bhāvanāya pahātabbā dhammā, etc.).” This form of teaching, in serial order according to te steps of abandoning, is known as the order of abandoning.

For example, the seven stages of purification of morality, mind, view, etc. The first practice is to purify morality; this is followed by the practice for purification of the mind. In this way, the stages of purification should proceed in their due order. Such teaching, in sequential order of practice, is known as the order of practising.

The first, in order of teaching Dhamma, is the sensuous plane (kāmāvacara) followed by the material plane (rūpāvacara) and then by the non-material plane (arūpāvacara). Such an arrangement in teaching is known as the order of planes of existences.

In addition to the aforesaid four serial arrangements of teaching, there is the fifth kind in which phenomena, such as the aggregates of matter (rūpakkhandha), feelings (vedanākkhandha), perceptions (saññākkhandha), etc., are taught by the Buddha in a particular order, for some specific reasons. Such an arrangement of the teaching is known as the order of the teaching by the Buddha (desanākkama).

In the first four orders of arrangement, each has its own reason for following a particular sequence, because conceptional stages actually happen in that order; because defilements are abandoned in that order; because the acts of purification are experienced in that order, or because the planes of existences exist in that order. But in the fifth method of teaching, desanākkama, the Buddha has a special reason for adopting a particular sequence in teaching each set of such phenomena as the five aggregates (khandha), the twelve bases (āyatana), etc.

In the chapter on the perfections, the perfections are arranged not in their order of happening, of abandoning, of practice, or of the planes of existence, as in the first four methods, but in accordance with this fifth method, desanākkama, taught by the Buddha for a special reason.

It might be asked why the Buddha adopted this particular sequence, e.g. generosity, morality, renunciation etc., and not any other in teaching the ten perfections? The answer is that when the Bodhisatta, the recluse Sumedha, first investigated the perfections to be fulfilled just after receiving the prophecy, he discovered them in a particular sequence; he therefore fulfilled them in that order; and after his Awakening, he taught the perfections in the same sequence he had practised.

To give a more detailed explanation: Of the ten perfections, generosity helps develop morality in a special way; even an immoral person, for example, a supporter on the occasion of his son’s ordination, is likely to observe precepts without difficulty; and generosity is easier to practise. Though it may be difficult for one to keep the precepts, one can find it easy to [52] give alms. Hence, the perfection of generosity is mentioned first.

Only generosity based on morality is most beneficial; so morality follows generosity. Only morality based on renunciation is most beneficial; so renunciation is taught immediately after morality.

Similarly, renunciation based on wisdom, wisdom on energy, energy on forbearance, forbearance on truthfulness, truthfulness on resolution, resolution on loving-kindness, loving-kindness based on equanimity is most beneficial; thus equanimity is taught after loving-kindness.

Equanimity can be beneficial only when it is based on compassion. Bodhisattas are great beings who had already been endowed with the basic quality of compassion.

How could Bodhisattas, the great compassionate ones, look upon sentient beings with equanimity or indifference? Some teachers say: It is not in all cases and at all times that Bodhisattas show indifference towards sentient beings; they do so only when it is necessary. Other teachers say: They do not show indifference towards beings, but only towards offensive deeds done by them. Thus, great compassion and the perfection of equanimity are not opposed to each other.

Another way of explaining the order:

1. Generosity (dāna) is taught initially 1) because generosity is likely to occur among many people and thus belongs to all beings; 2) because it is not so fruitful as morality, etc., and 3) because it is easy to practise.

2. Morality (sīla) is stated immediately after generosity 1) because morality purifies both the supporter and the recipient; 2) because after teaching the rendering of service to others such as alms giving, the Buddha wishes to teach abstention from causing affliction to others, such as killing; 3) because alms giving involves some positive action whereas morality involves some practice of restraint, and the Buddha wishes to teach restraint after teaching positive action, such as giving of alms; 4) because alms giving leads to attainment of wealth, and morality leads to the attainment of a human or Deva existence; and 5) because the Buddha wishes to teach the attainment of a human or Deva existence after teaching attainment of wealth.

3. Renunciation is mentioned immediately after morality 1) because through renunciation perfect morality may be observed; 2) because the Buddha wishes to teach good mental conduct through renunciation of both material things and the defilements immediately after teaching good physical and verbal conduct through morality; 3) because the attainment of the absorptions (jhāna) comes easily to one whose morality is pure; 4) because the fault arising from demeritorious deeds (kamma-paradha) is eradicated through observance of morality; by so doing, purity of physical or verbal exertion (payoga-suddhi) is achieved. Mental defilements (kilesa-paradha) are eradicated through renunciation; by so doing, the inherent elements of the wrong views of eternalism (sassata-diṭṭhi) and annihilationism (uccheda-diṭṭhi) are cleared away, and purity of disposition (āsaya-suddhi) with regard to insight knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa), and to knowledge that volitions are one’s own property (kammassa-kata-ñāṇa) is achieved. The Buddha accordingly wishes to teach the purification of knowledge by renunciation which follows the purification of exertion (payoga-suddhi); and 5) because the Buddha wishes to teach that eradication of mental defilements at the emergence (pariyuṭṭhāna) stage through renunciation can take place only after eradication of the mental defilements at the transgression (vītikkama) stage through morality. [53]

4. Wisdom is mentioned immediately after renunciation 1) because renunciation is perfected and purified by wisdom; 2) because the Buddha wishes to teach that there is no wisdom without the absorptions (jhāna), including renunciation; 3) because he wishes to teach wisdom which is the basic cause of equanimity, immediately after teaching renunciation which is the basic cause of concentration of the mind; and 4) because he wishes to teach that only by sustained thinking directed towards the welfare of others can there arise the knowledge of skilful means (upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa) in working for their welfare.

5. Energy is stated immediately after wisdom 1) because the function of wisdom is fulfilled by an application of energy; 2) because the Buddha wishes to teach the marvels of endeavour for the welfare of beings after teaching wisdom, that comprehends with insight the nature of reality, which is void of personality or self; 3) because he wishes to teach the cause for exertion ^{Exertion: paggaha, which means “support,” “help,” “aid,” “exertion,” here “exertion” may be the most appropriate.} immediately after the cause for equanimity; and 4) because he wishes to teach that special benefits accrue only from ardent striving after making careful consideration.

6. Forbearance is mentioned immediately after energy 1) because forbearance is fulfilled by energy as only an energetic man can withstand all the suffering that he encounters; 2) because the Buddha wishes to teach that energy is an adornment of forbearance, as forbearance, shown by an indolent man because he cannot win, is not dignified, whereas forbearance, shown by an energetic man in spite of his winning, is dignified; 3) because he wishes to teach the cause of concentration immediately after teaching the cause of energy as restlessness (uddhacca), due to excessive energy, is abandoned only by understanding the Dhamma through reflection on it (dhamma-nijjhānakkhanti); 4) because he wishes to teach that only an energetic man can constantly endeavour as only a man of great forbearance is free from restlessness and is always able to perform meritorious deeds; 5) because he wishes to teach that craving for rewards cannot arise when endowed with mindfulness as there can be no craving when one reflects on the Dhamma in undertaking welfare works; and 6) because he wishes to teach that a Bodhisatta bears with patience the suffering caused by others, also when he is not working diligently for their welfare, as evidenced from the Short Birth Story about Prince Dhammapāla (Cūḷa-dhammapāla-jātaka, Ja 358), etc.

7. Truthfulness is mentioned immediately after forbearance 1) because forbearance can be maintained for long through truthfulness as one’s forbearance will last only when one is truthful; 2) because having mentioned first the forbearance of wrongs inflicted by others, the Buddha wishes to teach next how the Bodhisatta keeps his word to render assistance even to those who have done him wrong ungratefully, for at the time of receiving the prophecy, the Bodhisatta, aspiring to Buddhahood, makes the resolution to rescue all beings. True to this firm determination he renders help even to those who [54] had wronged him.

To illustrate this matter: In the Long Birth Story about the Monkey King (Mahā-kapi-jātaka, Ja 516), the story is told of the Bodhisatta, in his existence of a monkey, going to the rescue of a Brahmin who had fallen into a deep chasm. Exhausted by strenuous exertion to bring the man out of danger, the Bodhisatta trustingly fell asleep on the lap of the man whom he had saved. With an evil thought of eating the flesh of his rescuer the wicked man hit the monkey’s head with a stone. Without showing any anger and patiently bearing the injury on his head, the Bodhisatta continued his effort to save the man from the danger of wild beasts. He showed him the way out of the forest by drops of blood that fell as he jumped from tree to tree; 3) because he wished to show that a Bodhisatta, with tolerance, never relinquishes the practice of speaking only the truth steadfastly though he is misrepresented by others; and 4) because having taught the meditative reflection by means of which emptiness may be understood, the Bodhisatta wishes to show the knowledge of truth, developed through the process of that reflection (dhamma-nijjhānakkhanti).

8. Resolution is mentioned immediately after truthfulness 1) because truthfulness is accomplished through resolution, since refraining from falsehood becomes perfect in one whose resolution to speak truth remains unshakeable even at the risk of his life; 2) because, after teaching truthfulness, he wishes to teach the resolute commitment of Bodhisattas to truth without wavering; and 3) because after teaching that only those who possess knowledge of the truth of things as they really are able to build up the perfections and bring them to completion, he wishes to teach that the requisites of the perfections can be effected as a result of the knowledge of truth.

9. Loving-kindness is mentioned immediately after resolution 1) because development of loving-kindness helps fulfilment of resolution to undertake the work for the welfare of others; 2) because, after teaching resolution, the Buddha wishes to teach what brings benefit to others in accordance with his resolve, for a Bodhisatta, in the course of fulfilling his perfections, generally abides in loving-kindness; and 3) because when one is established imperturbably in determination to work for others’ welfare, can one carry out one’s wish with loving-kindness.

10. Equanimity is mentioned immediately after loving-kindness 1) because equanimity purifies loving-kindness, and when one develops loving-kindness without equanimity, one is liable to be deceived by craving or greed that wears the mask of loving-kindness. Only when one develops equanimity, can one sometimes escape from the deceptive craving or greed; 2) because after teaching how the interest of others should be served out of loving-kindness, the Buddha wishes to teach that indifference is to be maintained towards all wrongs inflicted by them; ^{The Bodhisatta works for the welfare of beings with loving-kindness; he keeps a balanced mind, forgiving all beings when wronged by them.} 3) because, after teaching the development of loving-kindness, the Buddha wishes to teach its advantages, for only after developing loving-kindness can equanimity be successfully developed; and 4) the Buddha wishes to teach the wonderful attribute of a Bodhisatta who can remain equanimous even towards those who show him good-will.

Thus our teacher, the lord of the world, teaches the perfections in a proper sequence, as described above, arranged on some principle of order and succession, not at random or haphazardly.