5. What Are the Characteristics, Functions etc.?
We shall begin this section with explanations of the words characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause. We shall next deal with the definitions and purport of the perfections together with their characteristics, functions, manifestations, and proximate causes collectively, as well as individually.
Knowledge free from personality-belief (atta-diṭṭhi) is possible only through comprehension of the ultimate realities of mind and matter (nāma-rūpa) which is attained by reflecting upon each reality in terms of its characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate
1. Characteristic (lakkhaṇa).
The commentary [These lines and the ones that follow are actually being quoted from the sub-commentary the Classification of Mind and Matter (Nāma-rūpa-pariccheda, vs. 633-634; PTS 64)]. defines it thus: The characteristic has two aspects: 1) ordinary features common to all (sāmañña) and 2) special features peculiar to one and not shared by others (sāmaññaṁ vā sabhāvo vā, dhammānaṁ lakkhaṇaṁ mataṁ).”
Ordinary and special features of ultimate realities, are known as characteristics (lakkhaṇa); 1) features common to all (sāmañna), and 2) features not shared by others but possessed by one only (sabhāva) and thus unique (visesa).
For example, the material qualities of the earth-element (paṭhavī) has two characteristics: 1) change, impermanence, suffering, not being subject to control, and 2) hardness. The characteristics under 1) are features common (sāmañna) to other elements, whereas the characteristic of 2) hardness is the unique feature of the earth-element only, not shared by the others (sabhāva).
2. Function (rasa).
The commentary defines it as: kiccaṁ vā tassa sampatti, raso ti paridīpito, “function is to be explained also as having two aspects: kicca and sampatti. 1) function which is to be performed (kicca-rasa), and 2) attainment as a result thereof (sampatti-rasa).”
3. Manifestation (paccupaṭṭhāna).
The commentary defines it as: Whenever a person ponders deeply on a certain mind-object, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind-object under consideration, relates to its functions, relates to its cause and relates to its effect. Thus, anyone of those, which appears in his mind concerning the mind-object he is thinking about, is called manifestation (Phalaṁ vā paccupaṭṭhānaṁ upaṭṭhāna-nayo pi vā).
Manifestation should be known as result (phala) and manifestation (upaṭṭhānākāra); 1) the result of the ultimate realities (phala) and 2) the way something manifests to the yogi (upaṭṭhānākāra). Whenever the yogi ponders deeply over a certain ultimate reality, what relates to the nature, function, cause, or effect of that reality appears in his mind. Thus something relating to any of these four and appearing in the yogi’s mind is called its manifestation.
4. Proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna).
The commentary defines it as: The immediate contributory factor for the arising of an ultimate reality is known as the proximate cause (āsanna-kāraṇaṁ yaṁ tu, taṁ padaṭṭhāna-saññitaṁ).
What then are the four features of the ten perfections? The answer is: dealing first with those common to all the ten perfections:
1. They have the characteristic of serving the interest of others.
2. Their function is to provide assistance to others (kicca-rasa), or not vacillating as to fulfilment (sampatti-rasa).
3. Their manifestation is the appearance in the yogi’s mind of the knowledge that they have the nature of wishing for the welfare of beings or the effect of becoming a Buddha.
4. Their proximate cause is great compassion (mahā-karuṇā) and knowledge of skilful means (upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa).
The features belonging to each of the perfections are: 1) The volition founded on great compassion (mahā-karuṇā) and 2) the knowledge of skilful means (upāya-kosalla-ñāṇa) to relinquish, donate, give away one’s possessions to others is called the perfection of alms giving (dāna).
1. It has the characteristic of relinquishing.
2. Its function is to destroy greed that clings to materials that could be given away.
3. Its manifestation is non-attachment that appears in the yogi’s mind regarding its nature, or attainment of wealth and prosperity and happy existence regarding its effect.
4. Its proximate cause is the object to be given, for giving is possible only when there is that object.
1. The perfection of generosity is well comprehended only when it is studied thoroughly in eight ways with these four aspects. When studied thus, it would be clearly understood that generosity (dāna) is an act that has the characteristic of forsaking or abandoning. At the same time, it performs the task of destroying greed that tends to attach the supporter to the things to be given away. To the yogi’s mind, who ponders
2. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, wholesome physical and verbal conduct is called the perfection of morality. In terms of Abhidhamma, it means abstention from wrongdoings that should not be committed (viratī cetasika) and volition (cetanā) to perform different duties that should be performed.
1. It has the characteristic of not allowing one’s physical and verbal actions to become wrong but of keeping them orientated towards the wholesome, and has the characteristic of serving as a foundation for all good deeds.
2. Its function is to prevent one from indulging in moral depravities, such as the three wrong physical actions and the four wrong verbal actions; or it helps one attain a virtuous state with spotless and blameless conduct.
3. It manifests as purity in word and deed when the yogi reflects on its nature.
4. Its proximate cause is conscience (hirī) and concern (ottapa) not to do evil.
3. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, the group of consciousnesses and mental concomitants which aspire after emancipation from sensual existences, after perceiving the faults of the objects of sense-desire (vatthu-kāma), the mental defilements of greed and for various existences, is the perfection of renunciation.
1. It has the characteristic of emancipation from sense-desire and from sensual existence.
2. Its function is to bring out their faults.
3. Its manifestation is realization by the yogi that it is turning away, or withdrawing from these states of sensual existence.
4. It has the knowledge of spiritual urgency (saṁvega-ñāṇa) as its proximate cause.
Knowledge formed by concern (ottappa) about dangers, such as birth, ageing, disease, death, and woeful states is the knowledge of spiritual urgency (saṁvega-ñāṇa).
4. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, the mental concomitant of wisdom, which penetrates the ordinary and special characteristics of phenomena, is the perfection of wisdom.
1. It has the characteristic of penetrating the real nature of phenomena; or of unerring discernment of the ordinary and special characteristics of objects under contemplation, like hitting the bull’s eye with an arrow by a skilful archer.
2. Its function is to illuminate the object like a lamp and dispelling the darkness of delusion (moha) that hides the nature of objects.
3. Its manifestation as to its nature is non-confusion in the yogi’s mind with regard to objects of contemplation, like a guide showing the way to travellers who have lost their sense of direction in a forest, or as an effect, having the beneficial result of freedom from bewilderment with regard to the objects of contemplation.
4. Its proximate cause is concentration (samādhi), or the four noble truths.
5. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, the physical and mental endeavours for the welfare of others, is the perfection of energy.
1. It has the characteristic of striving or making effort.
2. Its function is to support and strengthen the factors which arise together with it, so that they will not become lax in performing meritorious deeds.
3. Its manifestation is steadfastness in the yogi’s mind which is opposed to sloth and torpor which are detrimental to meritorious deeds.
4. Its proximate cause is the knowledge of spiritual urgency (saṁvega-ñāṇa) or the eight factors that promote exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu).
Eight Factors Which Promote Exertion
Ven. Mahā Visuddhārāma Sayādaw, in the section on meditation in his Break Down of Form into its Ultimate Parts (Paramattha-sarūpa-bhedāni), has described the eight factors which promote exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu), which are: two concerning repairs and maintenance; two concerning travelling; two concerning ill-health; and two concerning the taking of meals.
Two Factors concerning Repairs and Maintenance
1. One says to oneself thus: “I have to do some mending of robes, etc. While I am engaged thus, it will not be easy for me to devote myself to the teaching of the Buddha. I shall endeavour to do so in advance before I start mending.”
2. On completion of such an undertaking, he also considers: “I have finished my mending job. While I was doing it, I could not pay attention to the teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness.”
Two Factors concerning Travelling
3. He reflects: “I have to go on a journey. While going on the journey, it will not be easy to devote my attention to the teaching of the Buddha. I shall endeavour to do so in advance before I travel.”
4. After the journey, he considers: “I have made the journey. While I was travelling, I could not devote my attention to the teaching of the Buddha. Now I must work harder to make up for this remissness.”
Two Factors concerning Ill-Health
5. When he begins to suffer slight illness he reflects: “I am feeling indisposed. The ailment may grow worse. I will work hard before it does.”
6. While recuperating, he reflects: “I have just recovered from illness, but it may recur at any time. I will make an effort before any sickness reappears.”
Two Factors concerning the Partaking of Meals
7. When sufficient alms food is not available, he reflects: “I have come back from the alms round with only a little food. A small meal keeps my body light and fit, free from sloth and torpor. I shall immediately start putting in effort.”
8. Having obtained sufficient alms food, he reflects: “I have come back from alms round with enough food which will give me strength to work hard. I shall immediately start working energetically.”
These are the eight factors that encourage exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu). As against these factors, there are eight others, the opposite of these, which encourage indolence (kusīta-vatthu). When one has to do some repair, one delays, saying: “It will make me tired. I shall have a good sleep before doing the repair.” When one has to go on a journey, too, one says in the same manner. When one starts feeling unwell, one complains of one’s feebleness and tries to sleep. When one has had enough food, one simply dozes, for one’s stomach is heavy. When one has done the repair, or come back from the journey, or recovered from illness, or had meagre food, one grumbles: “I am tired out; I shall take rest.” In this way, one foolishly excuses oneself for not making efforts to cultivate meritoriousness.
The eight things that encourage exertion (viriyārambha-vatthu) and the eight things that encourage indolence (kusīta-vatthu) are taught in the Chanting Together Discourse (Saṅgīti-sutta, DN 33).
6. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, tolerance to the wrongdoings of others is the perfection of forbearance. In terms of Abhidhamma, the group of consciousnesses and mental concomitants that arise in such a mode of tolerance are headed by non-aversion (adosa).
1. It has the characteristic of bearing with patience.
2. Its function is to overcome both desirable and undesirable objects.
One who is not endowed with endurance, adheres to greed when encountering pleasant, desirable objects; and to aversion, when encountering unpleasant, undesirable objects. One is then said to be defeated by both desirable objects and undesirable objects. One who is endowed with endurance, stands firmly, keeping away from both greed and aversion. Forbearance is thus said to overcome all sense objects whether desirable or
3. Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is patience, acceptance of both desirable objects and undesirable objects or non-opposition to them.
4. Its proximate cause is seeing things as they really are.
7. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, speaking the truth and keeping one’s word is the perfection of truthfulness. In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the mental concomitant of abstinence (virati-cetasika), or volition (cetanā-cetasika), or wisdom (paññā-cetasika), depending on the circumstance.
1. It has the characteristic of veracity.
2. Its function is to make clear the truth as it is.
3. Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is nobility, sweetness and pleasantness.
4. Its proximate cause is purity of deed, word and thought.
8. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, an unshaken determination to pursue meritoriousness is the perfection of resolution. In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the group of consciousnesses and mental concomitants arising in such a mode of resolution.
1. It has the characteristic of unshaken determination in fulfilment of the perfections, charity and good conduct as requisites of Awakening.
2. Its function is to overcome all demerit which is opposed to the requisites of Awakening.
3. Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is steadfastness in fulfilment of the requisites of Awakening.
4. Its proximate cause is the requisites of Awakening.
9. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, service to the welfare and happiness of the world is the perfection of loving-kindness. It is the mental concomitant of non-aversion (adosa-cetasika) in terms of Abhidhamma.
1. It has the characteristic of wishing prosperity to all beings.
2. Its function is to work for the welfare of beings in fulfilment of that wish; or its function is removing the nine causes of resentment. For details of the nine causes of resentment see the nine causes of anger, described under the perfection of forbearance in the Second Treatise on the Perfections below.
3. Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is serenity.
4. Its proximate cause is seeing beings as agreeable. No development of loving-kindness is possible if one looks at them as disagreeable ones.
10. Founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means, the attitude of impartiality towards desirable and undesirable conditioned beings, discarding love and hate, is the perfection of equanimity. In terms of Abhidhamma, it is the mental concomitant of specific neutrality (tatra-majjhattatā), which arises in such modes.
1. It has the characteristic of taking up the mental position between love and hate.
2. Its function is to have an impartial view.
3. Its manifestation in the yogi’s mind is allaying both love and hate.
4. Its proximate cause is reflection that all beings are owners of their own deeds (kamma).
Each of the above descriptions of the perfections begins with the qualifying words “founded on great compassion and knowledge of skilful means.” These two attributes form the basic virtues, which are always present in the mental continuum of Bodhisattas and only deeds of generosity and morality, etc., that are founded on them constitute the perfections.