The Second Treatise on the Perfections

Miscellany

The Order of the Perfections

With [1516] regard to the perfection of generosity, it is clearly stated in the Pāḷi canon concerning the Chronicles of the Buddhas that the Bodhisatta Sumedha admonished himself to start forth with the practice of the perfection of generosity since the Bodhisattas of the past had done so. It is clearly seen, therefore, that amongst the ten perfections, perfection of giving or generous giving demands the highest priority for fulfilment.

But in the Discourse about the Tangle (Jaṭā-sutta, SN 1.23.2) we find the verse: Sīle patiṭṭhāya naro sapañño, in which the Buddha explains that: “When a person of mature wisdom [1517] has three root-conditions of greedlessness, hatelessness, undeludedness, and is well established in morality,” he ardently develops concentration and insight wisdom and can unravel the tangled network of craving. Here, the Buddha mentions only the three trainings: morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā); there is not even a hint about the practice of generosity.

Furthermore, as the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga), which is the expository treatise of the single verse quoted above, does not touch upon the subject of generosity, and as the noble path of eight constituents which leads to Nibbāna includes the paths concerning morality, concentration and wisdom only, and there is no path including generosity, some people misconstrue it, thinking that generosity is not regarded by the Buddhas as essential, that it is not conducive to the attainment of Nibbāna, that it generates more rebirths in the cycle of existence and, as such, generosity should not be cultivated.

The well-known minister of King Mindon, U Hlaing of Yaw, went so far as to write in his book the Taste of Liberation (Vimutti-rasa), that the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people such as a rich man’s son, Siṅgāla.

There are many Buddhists who are offended by such observations as “generosity should not be cultivated” and who are indignant at Yaw minister’s writing that “the Buddha taught generosity only for the sake of very ordinary people.” But mere dislike of such views and indignation with them serves no purpose. What is more important and helpful is to understand correctly what the Buddha means by his teaching.

Concerning the aforesaid verse of the Discourse about the Tangle (Jaṭā-sutta, SN 1.23), what one should understand the true meaning of the Buddha’s discourse is as follows: This discourse was taught by the Buddha for the benefit of those superior persons who are capable of striving hard for the complete eradication of defilements, for the attainment of Awakening in the present life, with no more rebirth. If such a superior person actually strives hard for the attainment of Awakening in this very life and if, as a consequence of his strenuous efforts, he becomes an Arahat, there is no need for him to be reborn in a new life.

Generosity is an act which generates new life, new pleasures; for the person who will break the circle of the existence in this very life, there will be no more rebirths. Since there will be no new life for him to reap the benefits of generosity, acts of giving by him are unnecessary. That is why the Buddha, for the benefit of superior persons, dwells in this discourse of the Collection of the Thematic Discourses (Saṁyutta-nikāya) mainly on morality, concentration and wisdom which are more important than generosity for the purpose of the eradication of the defilements. But the Buddha does not at all say that generosity should not be cultivated.

Generosity has the quality of making the mind and heart pliable. When someone makes a generous offer of some gift, the very act of giving serves as a decisive support (upanissaya-paccaya) to make the mind more pliable and ready for the observance of precepts, for the cultivation of concentration, and for the development of wisdom through the practice of insight (vipassanā) meditation.

It is within the experience of every Buddhist that a feeling of awkwardness and embarrassment arises in him whenever he visits, without an offering, monasteries or temples for the purpose of keeping precepts, of listening to Dhamma talks, or for the practice of meditation. Therefore, it was customary for the noble disciples like Visākhā to bring an offering, such as rice, sweets or fruits in the morning and beverages and medicinal preparations in the evening, whenever she visited the Buddha.

Everyone who does not become an Arahat in this life will go through more rounds in the cycle of existence. In doing so, it will be difficult for them to attain favourable states of existence without practising generosity in the present life. Even if they happen to gain a good rebirth, they will find themselves lacking in material possessions, without which they cannot do meritorious deeds.

Therefore, it is most important for those who still have to go on this long journey in Saṁsāra, the cycle of existence, to cultivate generosity. Only when one is equipped with the “provisions for a long journey,” namely, generosity, then only can one reach a good destination, and while there, possessing material wealth as the fruits of the generosity of past lives, one can devote oneself to the pursuit of whatever meritorious deeds one wishes to.

Among the travellers in the round of this cycle of Saṁsāra, Bodhisattas are the greatest individuals. After receiving a definite prophecy from a Buddha of his becoming a Buddha, a Bodhisatta continues to fulfil the perfections for the attainment of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa) for four immeasurable aeons plus 100,000 aeons. A Paccekabuddha, i.e., a non-teaching Buddha, had to fulfil his perfections for two immeasurable aeons plus 100,000 aeons; a Chief Disciple (Agga-sāvaka) for one immeasurable aeon plus 100,000 aeons; and one of the leading disciples (mahā-sāvaka) for 100,000 aeons. Therefore, for Bodhisattas, who are great travellers on the long journey of Saṁsāra, perfection of generosity is of primary importance, and as such, a place of prominence is given to steadfast fulfilment of the perfection of generosity in the Pāḷi texts concerning the Chronicles of the Buddhas.

Thus, as the discourse in the Discourse about the Tangle (Jaṭā-sutta, SN 1.23), was addressed to individuals who are ripe for attainment of Awakening, those who have not yet fulfilled the perfections should not say that the perfection of generosity is not essential.

Those are some who ask if it is possible to attain Nibbāna by practising only generosity. It may be replied that, practising only one perfection by itself, neither generosity, nor morality, nor meditation, will result in the attainment of Nibbāna. For practising generosity alone implies that it is not accompanied by morality nor by meditation. Similarly, practising meditation alone means that it is practised without the support of morality and generosity. When not restrained by morality, one is liable to indulge in evil deeds. If such a person of evil habits attempts to practise meditation, his efforts will be futile like a good seed which, when put on red-hot iron, does not produce a sprout but turns to ashes. Thus, it should be noted that it is improper to speak of “practising generosity alone.”

The Recipient of Generosity

In the chapter on generosity in the Chronicles of the Buddhas, it is clearly stated that alms should be given irrespective of the recipient’s status, whether high, medium or low. In view of such a firm statement, it is neither desirable nor necessary to pick and choose the recipient when one makes an offering.

But in the Discourse giving an Analysis of Offerings (Dakkhiṇā-vibhaṅga-sutta, MN 142), the Buddha taught seven kinds of gifts to be made to the Saṅgha, the community of monastics, and fourteen kinds of gift to be made to individual recipients. It is pointed out with regard to the fourteen kinds of gifts made to individual recipients, the merit gained increases according to the recipient, going up from the lowliest animals to the highest beings; the most meritorious gift is, of course, that made to the community of monastics.

Again, in the Story about the Peta Aṅkura (Peta-vatthu, Pv 21), we find the story of two Devas. When the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma while being seated on Sakka’s throne in the abode of Tāvatiṁsa, two Devas, Indaka and Aṅkura, went to listen to the discourse. Whenever powerful Devas arrived, Aṅkura had to make way for them and move back until he was ten leagues away from the Buddha.

But Indaka remained in his seat; he did not have to move. The reason is as follows: At the time when the human lifespan was 10,000 years, Aṅkura was a human being and was very rich. Throughout that life he made offerings of meals to large numbers of ordinary people, cooking the meals on fireplaces which stretched for twelve leagues. Because of the merit gained, he had taken rebirth as a Deva. Indaka, however, became a Deva because he had offered a spoonful of rice to Arahat Anuruddha.

Although the offering Indaka had made was just a spoonful of rice, as the recipient was an [1519] Arahat, the merit he acquired was great and noble. Thus, as an equal of the powerful Devas, he did not have to make way for them. On the other hand, although Aṅkura had made large amounts of gifts over a very long period of time, the recipients were worldlings and consequently the beneficial result that accrued was not of a high order. And he had to move back every time a powerful Deva arrived. Therefore, we find in the Pāḷi text the exhortation (Pv 329): “When an offering is to be made, the one who can bring the greatest benefit should be chosen as the recipient (viceyya dānaṁ dātabbaṁ yattha dinnaṁ mahapphalaṁ).” There seems to be a contradiction between the Pāḷi text of the Chronicles of the Buddhas and the discourses such as the Discourse giving an Analysis of Offerings (Dakkhiṇā-vibhaṅga-sutta, MN 142), etc. and other Pāḷi texts. The seeming contradiction is easily resolved when one remembers that discourses such as the Discourse giving an Analysis of Offerings are meant for ordinary people or Devas, whereas the discussions in the Chronicles of the Buddhas are directed exclusively to the Bodhisattas, whose goal is attainment of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa), or the Buddha-wisdom. This wisdom is only one kind and is not to be classified into low, medium or great wisdom.

A Bodhisatta has only to give away whatever he has to offer to whoever comes along to receive them, irrespective of his status whether high, medium or low. He does not have to consider thus: “This recipient is of low status; by making an offering to him, I shall gain only a low order of omniscience. This recipient is only of medium status; by making offerings to him, I shall gain omniscience merely of medium order.” Therefore, giving of alms to whoever comes along to receive them without any discrimination is the habitual practice of Bodhisattas, who are bent on attainment of omniscience (sabbaññutā-ñāṇa). On the other hand, the aim of ordinary worldlings, Devas or humans, in practising generosity is to gain worldly comforts of their liking, and as such, it is natural that they would choose the best recipient for their alms.

It may be concluded, therefore, that there is no contradiction between the texts in the Chronicles of the Buddhas, which are intended for the great Bodhisattas, and a discourse such as the Discourse giving an Analysis of Offerings, which is meant for ordinary people and Devas.

The Word Perfection

The possible meanings of the word pāramī have been variously explained in the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka) commentary. Just to let the reader have an idea:

Pāramī is the combination of parama and ī. Parama means “most excellent,” which is used here in the sense of Bodhisattas, who are the most excellent ones.

Or pāramī derives from the root para with the suffix ma. The root para means “to fulfil” or “to protect.” Because they fulfil and protect such virtues as alms giving (dāna), etc., Bodhisattas are called parama.

Or para, a prefix, is attached to the root mava, meaning “to bind.” Because Bodhisattas behave as though they bind on and attract other beings to them by means of special virtues, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix is attached to the root maja meaning “to be pure;” paraṁ means “more.” Because Bodhisattas are free of mental impurities and far purer than others, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix, is attached to the root maya meaning “to go;” param means “superior.” Because Bodhisattas go to the superior state of Nibbāna in a special manner, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix, is attached to the root mu meaning “to determine.” Because Bodhisattas determine their next existence as they do in the case of the present, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ, a prefix, is attached to the root mi meaning “to put in;” paraṁ means [1520] “more.” Because Bodhisattas “put in” more and more such virtues as morality (sīla), etc. in their mental process, they are called parama.

Or paraṁ means “different from” or “opposed to;” the root is mi, meaning “to crush.” Because Bodhisattas crush all their enemies, which in the form of impurities, are different from and opposed to all virtues, so they are called parama.

Or pāra, a noun, is attached to the root maja meaning “to purify;” pāra means “the other shore.” Here Saṁsāra is to be taken as “this shore” and Nibbāna as “the other shore.” Because Bodhisattas purify themselves as well as others on the other shore of Nibbāna, they are called pāramī.

Or pāra, a noun, is attached to the root mava, meaning “to bind” or “to put together.” Because Bodhisattas bind or put beings together in Nibbāna, they are called pāramī.

Or the root is maya, meaning “to go.” Because Bodhisattas go to the other shore of Nibbāna, they are called pāramī.

Or the root is mu, meaning “to understand.” Because Bodhisattas fully understand the other shore of Nibbāna as it really is, they are called pāramī.

Or the root is mi, meaning “to put in.” Because Bodhisattas put in and convey beings to the other shore of Nibbāna, they are called pāramī.

Or the root is mi, meaning “to crush.” Because Bodhisattas crush and eradicate in Nibbāna the impurities which are the enemies of being, they are called pāramī.

Paramānaṁ ayaṁ pāramī; pāramī means property in the form of practices of Bodhisattas; or paramānaṁ kammaṁ pāramī; pāramī means the duties of the Bodhisattas; paramissa bhāvo pāramitā paramissa kammaṁ pāramitā means duties that bring about knowledge that such a person is a Bodhisatta.

All this means: A series of duties such as giving (dāna) and others to be fulfilled by Bodhisattas are called pāramī (or pāramitā).

In the sub-commentary on the Ornaments of the Victor (Jinālaṅkāra) it is said: The volition of alms giving, etc, which forms the way to Nibbāna, the other side of Saṁsāra, should be called perfection (pāraṁ nibbānaṁ ayan-ti gacchanti etāhī ti pāramiyo, nibbāna-sādhakā hi dāna-cetanādayo dhammā paramī ti vuccanti).

In the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka) commentary it is said: “Perfection is constituted by virtues, such as generosity, morality, etc., that are to be grasped by means of compassion and skill. Compassion is shown towards beings who are not spoiled or overwhelmed by craving, pride and wrong view (taṇhā-māna-diṭṭhīhi anupahatā karuṇūpāya-kosalla-pariggahita dānādayo guṇā pāramiyo).” Skill means wisdom in seeking ways and means. Giving, morality, etc., that is to be guided by compassion and wisdom are to be named perfections. ^{This explanation is made with special reference to the perfections of Sambuddhas.}

The ten perfections are:

Concerning these perfections, it has been mentioned in chapter II: The Rare Appearance of a Buddha, that there are four kinds of cultivation of mind. One of these cultivations deals with the fact that from the time Bodhisattas receive definite assurance from a Buddha about their becoming a Buddha till the last rebirth when they actually become a completely Self-Awakened Buddha, there is no period in this very long interval in which they do not practise for the fulfilment of the ten perfections (pāramī), at the very least, they do not fail to fulfil the perfection of generosity. It fills us with devotional inspiration to reflect on these noble practices pursued by the Bodhisattas.

Characteristics, Functions, etc.

A person practising insight (vipassanā) meditation must come to know the nature of mind (nāma) and matter (rūpa) by means of their characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes. Then only will he come to possess a clear view of them. Similarly, it is only when one knows the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the perfections that one will have a clear understanding of them. Therefore, we find in the commentary to the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka) a separate chapter on the characteristics, functions, manifestations and proximate causes of the perfections. ^{See the Miscellaneous Talk (Pakiṇṇaka-kathā) of the commentary to the Basket of Conduct (Cariyā-piṭaka).}

A feature common to all the ten perfections is that they have the characteristic of serving the interest of others. Their function is providing assistance to others (kicca-rasa) and being endowed with steadfastness or prosperity, success, fulfilment (samāpatti-rasa). Their manifestation is the recurring phenomenon of the quest for the welfare and benefit of beings, or the recurring phenomenon of appearing in the mind of the Bodhisatta that it is a useful means of becoming a Buddha. Their proximate cause is great compassion, or great compassion and skilfulness as to means and ways.

It is necessary to provide a few explanations on the above definitions. Characteristic (lakkhaṇa) has two aspects: the ordinary feature of each thing, i.e., the feature applicable to others also (samañña-sabhāva) and the peculiar feature, which is not applicable to others (visesa-sabhāva). For example, amongst the material qualities, the earth-element of the four great elements has two characteristics: impermanence and hardness. Of these, the characteristic of impermanence is a feature applicable to other elements and is thus an ordinary feature only (samañña-sabhāva), whereas the characteristic of hardness is the unique feature of the earth-element only, it is not shared by others, and is thus its special feature (visesa-sabhāva).

Function (rasa) has also two aspects to it, the function of what is to be performed (kicca-rasa) and fulfilment, attainment (sampatti-rasa). For example, when meritoriousness arises, it does so after counteracting or obliterating demeritoriousness. Thus, it is said that the function of meritoriousness is the counteracting of demeritoriousness. The final fulfilment of a meritorious act is production of beneficial results; thus the function of meritoriousness is the attainment of beneficial results.

Whenever a person ponders deeply on certain mind-objects, what usually appears in his mind relates to the nature of the mind-object under consideration, it relates to its function; it relates to its cause; it relates to it effect. The manifestations which thus appear in his mind concerning the mind-object he is thinking about is called its manifestation. For example, when a person starts to investigate: “What is meritoriousness?” it would appear in his mind, “meritoriousness is of the nature of purity” regarding its nature; “meritoriousness is that which counteracts or obliterates demeritoriousness” regarding its function; “meritoriousness is possible only when one associates with the good and virtuous” regarding its cause; “meritoriousness is that which enables the production of desirable results” regarding its fruition.

The immediate and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising is called the proximate cause. For example, of many factors which cause the arising of meritoriousness, a proper attitude of mind is the immediate and the most powerful contributory factor for its arising and is therefore termed its proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna) in the texts. [1522]