Introduction

The Dhammanīti is a collection of wisdom sayings intended to help people in their life and relationships with others by providing clear guidance of how to identify various people and the roles they fulfil. It also shows what our duties are towards them (and they to us), and what sort of behaviour is expected from someone aspiring to live a moral or righteous life.

It was probably used as an educational reference for literate students, and as a source of memorable sayings for explaining moral principles to others, be they lay, monastic, citizens or leaders, perhaps not just by monastic advisors, but also by lay paṇḍits.

Although the text necessarily reflects the times in which it was written, it is still relevant today and can be taken as a manual to understanding others, what should be our relationship to them, and as a guide to right living by anyone who wishes to develop their ethical life, and ensure their future, which, of course, depends on their present conduct.

It can also be used as a teaching device to instruct others, be they children, pupils or leaders at various levels of society. It can therefore stand as a handbook for ethics in all walks of life and as a handy reference for right living.

The Differing Roles of Sanskrit and Pāḷi

Sanskrit was always used as a vehicle for all sorts of scientific works, including language studies (grammars, vocabularies, prosodies, etc.); political thought, such as is found in the Arthaśāstra; ethics and conduct as in the Manusmṛti and the Dharmaśāstras; and other sciences like philosophy, medicine, astrology and music.

Pāḷi, on the other hand, for a long time was simply used as a way to preserve and expound upon the Buddha’s teaching and the history of the Sāsana. It was not until the renaissance in learning in the 12th–13th centuries that scientific works were for the first time written in Pāḷi, and then very much under the influence of Sanskrit works on these subjects.

We can think of the dedicated works on Pāḷi vocabulary, grammar, The Kaccāyana grammar seems to be have been written well before this period, but it is an exception in this sense. prosody and poetics in the 12th and 13th centuries and also works on medicine and astrology, all of which had Sanskrit precursors, and which emerged at the same time as the sub-commentaries (ṭīkas) and manuals.

The Nīti or Wisdom literature was widely known and spread in Sanskrit, in the sayings of Vyāsa and Cāṇakya (Kauṭilya), and in such well-loved compilations as the Pañcatantra and the Hitopadeśa, long before it emerged as a genre in Pāḷi.

The present text is one of a collection of Nīti (Wisdom) texts that were collected in Myanmar in the late medieval period. It is a part of the Indian Subhāṣita (Well-Spoken Words) tradition, and seems to be largely based on that tradition, but with significant additions from Pāḷi Wisdom literature.

The Nīti literature in Pāḷi is basically collections of Subhāsita (Well-Spoken Words) attributed to wise men, whether named or anonymously. It should be noted that the idea of the Subhāsita itself is well known, even in the Tipiṭaka, compare Sabbhisuttaṁ SN 1.31, where five Devas first announce gnomic verses, and then the Buddha is asked:

“Kassa nu kho, Bhagavā, subhāsitan-ti?”
“Sabbāsaṁ vo subhāsitaṁ pariyāyena, api ca mama pi suṇātha:

“Who, Fortunate One, has spoken well?”
“All have spoken well and with reason, however, listen to me:

Sabbhi-r-eva samāsetha, sabbhi kubbetha santhavaṁ,
sataṁ Saddhammam-aññāya, sabbadukkhā pamuccatī ti.”

Associate with the wise, be intimate with the wise, by understanding the True Dhamma of the good, one is freed from all suffering.”

This verse could easily have found its way into one of these collections, as also this verse from the Subhāsitasutta, Snp 2.14, which is indeed included in this collection at Dhn 64:

Subhāsitaṁ uttamam-āhu santo;
Dhammaṁ bhaṇe nādhammaṁ, taṁ dutiyaṁ, We need to read dutīyam, and in the next line tatīyaṁ, for the metre.
piyaṁ bhaṇe nāpiyaṁ taṁ tatiyaṁ,
saccaṁ bhaṇe nālikaṁ taṁ catutthaṁ.

Good people say well-spoken words are first; you should speak Dhamma, not what is not Dhamma, this is second; you should speak pleasantly, not unpleasantly, this is third; you should speak the truth not lies, this is the fourth.

We should note however, that although a Subhāsita is known to the Tipiṭaka, it is not yet being used as a technical term, as it became in the Sanskrit tradition, where it constituted a specific genre of materials. Recently a large collection of 551 of these subhāsitas from the Tipiṭaka were collected by Ven. Rerukane Candawimala in his Buddhanītisaṅgaha, which I translated as Buddhist Wisdom Verses (bit.ly/ABT-BWV) in 2011.

Pāḷi Nīti Literature

The Pāḷi Nīti literature flourished particularly in Myanmar, but it was also known in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia; and in Sri Lanka, where its Sanskrit works were studied. Perhaps, as the Sanskrit works were already accessible and understood in Sri Lanka, there was no felt need to produce a Pāḷi Nīti collection in Pāḷi.

In Myanmar, the language of learning was Pāḷi, and the same need to instruct people—and especially leaders—in ethics was present. It is perhaps for this reason that the Nīti literature in Pāḷi originated and prospered in Myanmar.

The best known work of the genre in Pāḷi seems to have been the 167-verse Lokanīti, hundreds of manuscripts of which are known to have been circulating in Myanmar, where its study was part of the basic curriculum, even in colonial times.

Apart from the Lokanīti there are numerous other collections, such as the Rājanīti, the Mahārahanīti, the Kavidappaṇanīti, the Nītimañjarī, the Sutavaḍḍhananīti, and many others. Of these the Dhammanīti is often considered the earliest and the best of the collections as it contains memorable maxims on a wide range of topics. Although there is no consensus on the matter, Bechert and Braun think it probably dates from the 14th–15th century. See PNTB, § 21.

As a compilation it combines translations of Sanskrit subhāṣita, often adapted to the specific Buddhist sensibility and vocabulary of Theravāda Buddhism, along with wisdom verses in the Pāḷi tradition, mainly drawn from the Tipiṭaka, as well as original compositions in the genre. It therefore constitues a unique blend of adapted Sanskritic and Buddhist lore.

Types of Verse

As in my previous translation of the Udānavarga I have identified the types of verse that are employed, according to whether they are rhetorical questions (rh.q., 26), admonitions (adm., 135) or simple statements (stm., 232). Unlike the Udānavarga there are no declarative verses in this collection, so we have just the three types.

These are identified in a hierarchy, that is, if there is a rhetorical question in the verse, it is marked as such, even though they may also contain admonitions or simple statements; again if there is an admonition it is marked as such, even though it may also contain a simple statement.

We can see from the numbers that the text primarily prefers simple statements, and it prefers to assert truths about the way things are, rather than telling people what to do. However, admonitions are still substantial, so we can say the prescriptive voice is strong, but it is secondary to observation. Rhetorical questions are much rarer, and seem to be used sparingly, and not as a primary mode.

I will now give some examples for these types.

Rhetorical Questions (Praśna-Alaṅkāra)

Dhn 335

Dhammatthakāmamokkhānaṁ pāṇo saṁsiddhikāraṇaṁ,
taṁ nighatā kiṁ na hataṁ? Rakkhitā kiṁ na rakkhataṁ?

Life is the means of accomplishment for Dhamma, prosperity, love and liberation, one who kills it, how is he not a slayer? One who protects it, how is he not a protector?

Questions like these engage the listener and makes him think through the answers, and then on to their implications. In this case one who protects life enables the four main aims in life, it therefore beholds one to protect it, as when you kill you don’t just end a life, but you put an end to the potentiality of that particular life also.

Rhetorical questions of this kind are a good way of involving the listener with the teachings, and helping them to think things through for themselves, and relating them to a wider context, so they can understand the consequences of their actions.

Admonition (Vidhi/Nisedha)

These are normally formed with the imperative voice, or with the optative verb. Note, though, that not all optatives are admonitory. Here is an example which employs both (imperative=adhīyetha; and optatives=jāneyya and payojaye), and both positive and negative injunctions:

Dhn 23

Sabbaṁ sutaṁ adhīyetha – hīnam-ukkaṭṭhamajjhimaṁ –
sabbassa atthaṁ jāneyya, na ca sabbaṁ payojaye.
Hoti tādisako kālo yadi attāvahaṁ sutaṁ.

One must learn by heart all that is heard – inferior, superior or middling – you should know every matter, but you should not undertake everything. There comes such a time when what was learned is taken up.

Although these are fairly straightforward “must do/not do” type statements, I think that they also require the assessment and consent of the people they are addressed to, and engage the listener/reader in a different, but still very active, way as they agree with or disagree with the advice.

Simple Statements (Siddhāntavākya)

It is notable that in a collection of what are ostensibly advisory verses on conduct that simple statements are substantially more numerous than admonitions. Example:

Dhn 6

Uṭṭhānā upaṭṭhānā ca sussūsā paricārikā
sakkaccaṁ sippuggahaṇā garuṁ ārādhaye budho.

Through rising, service, listening, attendance and the respectful acquisition of knowledge the wise one satisfies the teacher.

Although it doesn’t say you should conform your behaviour to these norms, that, of course, is heavily implied. I think this again engages the reader who has to draw his own conclusions, not just about the correctness of the statement, but also about how he should apply it in his own life.

Besides these basic forms I also identify analogies and similes, which are marked additionally to the basic form of the verse.

Analogy (Dṛṣṭānta)

It is interesting that analogies (65) outnumber similes (36), which shows that the text prefers to teach by juxtaposing parallel situations rather than making explicit comparisons. This again suggests a pedagogical style that asks the reader to make the connection themselves, as with the simple statements. The Dhammanīti is therefore fundamentally a wisdom collection that shows more than it commands, and it trusts the reader to see the patterns. The relatively high use of analogy indicates a teaching method based on illustrative examples rather than abstract rules.

Dhn 11

Sukhaṁ rukkhassa chāyā va, tato ñātimātāpitu,
tato ācariyarañño, tato Jinassa sāsanaṁ.

Good is the shade of a tree, better than that are relatives, mother and father, better than that is a royal teacher, better than that is the teaching of the Victor.

We can all know from our everyday lives that having the shade of a tree, whether from sun or rain, is beneficial. Then, building on that momentum, the verse describes people and things that bring even more benefit.

Analogies may be combined with rhetorical questions, as in the following verse.

Dhn 60

Hiraññena migānaṁ va, susīlena asīlino,
adhammikassa Dhammena, bālānam-pi sutena kiṁ?

Like animals with gold, the unvirtuous with virtue, the unrighteous with Dhamma, how about fools with learning?

Just as animals do not have any idea of the value of gold, so the unvirtuous and the unrighteous do not understand the value of virtue and Dhamma, so what can we expect with fools in regard to learning? The engagement is on multiple levels here, as we have to think it through from analogous situations, and then engage with the question at the end.

Simile (Upamā)

A simile is similar to an analogy but is distinguished by using a word of comparison such as iva, yathā or upamā:

Dhn 21

Mātā satru pitā verī, bālakāle na sikkhito,
na sobhati sabhāmajjhe, haṁsamajjhe bako yathā.

A mother is an enemy, a father is a foe, (if) during childhood they do not train one, he does not shine in the midst of an assembly, like a heron amongst the geese.

We can understand that just as a heron does not stand out or appear prominent when amongst the stately geese, so an untrained person will be lost in the crowd when in an assembly of his peers. And this is blamed on those who should have trained him better in the first place.

There is a certain interchangability in these types, so that sometimes what was given as an analogy in the Sanskrit:

Vyāsakāra 21

Durjanaiḥ saha samparkaḥ śatrutāpi na yujyate,
gṛhṇato dahate ’ṅgāraḥ śānte kṛṣṇāyate karaḥ.

Association with a bad person is not suitable, even for an enemy, a hand is burned black by a coal for one who grasps at it.

can easily be translated into a simile in the Pāḷi:

Dhn 126

Dujjanena hi saṁsaggaṁ sattutā pi na yujjati,
tatto va ḍayhaty-aṅgāro Mhn: tatto tu dahat’ aṅgāro sante kāḷāyate karo; but a hand is burned black by a glowing coal. sante kāḷāyate karo.

Association with a bad person is not suitable, even for an enemy, just as a hand is burned black by a glowing coal.

I have discussed such issues as concision, ellipsis, and the collective singulars elsewhere. See my translation of the Udānavarga (https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/tt/Udanavarga/00-Introduction.htm#toc3). Those are general statements which apply equally to this, and indeed all the verse texts in the tradition. They can be studied there, rather than repeated again here.

Sources

Sanskrit Sources

Sometimes the Sanskrit source is sufficiently close to Buddhist ideas, that nothing but a transposition of language was required. An example of this is:

Vṛddha-Cāṇakya (CV) 14.20

Tyaja durjanasaṁsargaṁ, bhaja sādhusamāgamaṁ,
kuru puṇyam ahorātraṁ, smara nityaṁ anityatām.

Dhn 411

Caja dujjanasaṁsaggaṁ, bhaja sādhusamāgamaṁ,
kara puññam-ahorattiṁ, sara niccam-aniccataṁ.

Abandon association with bad people, be devoted to association with the good, do merit day and night, remember the (seemingly) permanent is impermanent.

This accords entirely with Buddhist ideas of keeping good company on the one hand and doing meritorious deeds as often as opportunity allows, but together with the deep understanding behind Buddhist philosophy that what appears to be stable is actually unstable and passing.

Sometimes the source has been augmented by adding to its material. For instance the simple:

Pratyayaśatakaya 74

Alasasya kutaḥ śilpam? Aśilpasya kuto dhanam?
Adhanasyakuto mitram? Amitrasya kutaḥ sukham?

has an additional two lines in the Pāḷi:

Dhn 16

Alasassa kuto sippaṁ? Asippassa kuto dhanaṁ?
adhanassa kuto mittaṁ? Amittassa kuto sukhaṁ?
Asukhassa kuto puññaṁ? Apuññassa kuto Nibbānaṁ?

For the lazy how is there a craft? For the craftless how is there wealth? For the poor how is there a friend? For the friendless how is there happiness? For the unhappy one how is there merit? For the meritless how is there Nibbāna?

which gives it a specifically Buddhist flavour.

Buddhist ideals, especially in regard to such things as caste, also come through in the rewriting of a verse, so that:

Vṛddha-Cāṇakya (CV) 1.14

Varayet kulajāṁ prajño virūpām api kanyakām,
rūpavatiṁ na nīcasya, vivāhaḥ sadṛśe kule.

A wise man should marry a maiden born in a good family, even if plain, not a beautiful one from a low family, marriage should be in a similar family.

which is a typical sentiment in Brahminical thought, becomes in the translation:

Dhn 156

Vāreyya kulajaṁ pañño virūpam-api kaññakaṁ;
hīnāya pi surūpāya vivāhaṁ sadisaṁ kare.

A wise man should marry a maiden born in a good family, even if plain; (but) he can even make a beautiful inferior an equal in marriage.

which shows that caste was not seen as a definitive category in Buddhism. It is not that caste was unknown or disregarded, but it could be set aside when reason dictated.

Again philosophical differences required the translator to make changes on occasion:

Vyāsa-subhāṣita-saṁgraha 21

Nāsti vidyāsamaṁ mitraṁ, nāsti vyādhisamo ripuḥ,
na cāpatyasamaḥ sneho, na ca daivāt paraṁ balaṁ.

There is no friend like knowledge, there is no enemy like illness, there is no love like a child’s, there is no strength superior to the gods.

becomes the Buddhist:

Dhn 371

Natthi vijjāsamaṁ mittaṁ, natthi byādhisamo ripu,
natthi attasamaṁ pemaṁ, natthi kammaparaṁ balaṁ.

There is no friend like knowledge, there is no enemy like illness, there is no love like self-love, there is no strength superior to (one’s) deeds.

In Buddhism it is one’s personal deeds that are the main thing in determining who one is, the gods have only a secondary place. We can say in all things this is at the centre of Buddhist thought.

The sentiment may be the same in both, but with an introduction of specifically Buddhist ideas and terms:

Śatakatrayādi-subhāṣitasaṁgraha 568

Na sā sabhā yatra na santivṛddhā,
vṛddhā na te ye na vadanti Dharmam;
Dharmaḥ sa no yatra na cāsti satyaṁ,
satyaṁ na tad yat kapaṭānuviddham.

That is not an assembly which has no elders, they are not (true) elders who do not speak the Dharma, that is not Dharma where there is no truth, that is not truth which is mixed with deceit.

The whole verse and its sentiments would be acceptable to a Buddhist, and doesn’t contradict anything in the tradition, but when it was adapted into the Pāḷi it becomes:

Dhn 53

Na sā sabhā yattha na santi santo,
na te santo ye na vadanti Dhammaṁ;
rāgañ-ca dosañ-ca pahāya mohaṁ,
Dhammaṁ bhaṇantā va bhavanti santo.

That is no assembly where there are no good people, those are not good people who do not speak the Dhamma; having abandoned passion, hatred and delusion, they become good people proclaiming the Dhamma.

This introduces and centres Buddhist categories and thought, and would resonate with a Buddhist audience, much more than the simple Sanskrit verse above.

Summing this examination up, I think it is fair to say that whereas many of the Sanskrit verses were acceptable to the Buddhist sensibility, when they were not they were altered so as to be acceptable, making this a distinctively Buddhist compilation.

Pāḷi Sources

It was not only the Sanskrit sources that could be adapted, but the Pāḷi sources also were sometimes rewritten to serve another purpose, so that a verse written about trust in the Jātaka:

Jātaka 448:1

Nāsmase katapāpamhi, nāsmase alikavādine,
nāsmase attatthapaññamhi, atisante pi nāsmase.

One should not trust in one who does wrong, one should not trust in one who speaks lies, one should not trust in one wise (only) in his own benefit, one should not trust in one who is too possessive.

is adapted to talk about service in Dhn:

Dhn 92

Na seve katapāpamhi, na sevālikavādine,
na sev’ attatthapaññamhi, na seve atisantake.

You should not serve one who does wrong, you should not serve one who speaks lies, you should not serve one wise (only) in his own benefit, one should not serve one who is too possessive.

This is interesting I think because the collector was willing to change even well-established Buddhist and even canonical verse when he felt his purpose required it. It shows how in the hands of the translator all the material was seen to be malleable.

What is given as part of a dialogue the Bodhisatta is having in a Jātaka story:

Jātaka 403:2

Yācako appiyo hoti, yācaṁ adadam-appiyo,
tasmāhaṁ taṁ na yācāmi: mā me videssanā ahu.

A beggar is disliked, one who doesn’t give when begged is disliked, therefore I do not beg from you (thinking): do not let him have dislike for me.

Is transformed into an admonition, by adding a new and original pādayuga in this collection:

Dhn 190

Yācako appiyo hoti, yācaṁ adadam-appiyo,
tasmā seṭṭhanaro loke dhanaṁ sippaṁ pariggahe.

A beggar is disliked, one who doesn’t give when begged from is disliked, therefore the best man in the world should acquire wealth and skill.

On at least one occasion, it appears that a prose passage in the Pāḷi was versified by the translator:

DN 31 prose

Pañcahi … ṭhānehi antevāsinā … ācariyā paccupaṭṭhātabbā—uṭṭhānena upaṭṭhānena sussusāya pāricariyāya sakkaccaṁ sippapaṭiggahaṇena.

In five … ways the pupil … should attend on his teachers: by rising, service, listening, attendance and by the respectful acquisition of knowledge.

becomes in this collection of verse: I am grateful to Ujjwal Kumar for pointing out this parallel.

Dhn 6

Uṭṭhānā upaṭṭhānā ca sussūsā paricārikā
sakkaccaṁ sippuggahaṇā garuṁ ārādhaye budho.

Through rising, service, listening, attendance and the respectful acquisition of knowledge the wise one satisfies the teacher.

The Author

As there are a large number of verses having parallels, it seems most people who have studied this genre have presumed that more parallels would be discovered in time, and have not therefore discussed the fact that a large number of verses are only known from this collection, and its derivatives.

Some of greatest scholars of the Nīti/Subhāṣita tradition—such as Ludwig Sternbach, Who himself made the largest collection of such verses: Mahā-Subhāṣita-Saṁgraha, containing over 14,000 verses. Heinz Bechert, and Heinz Braun Braun did his MA and PHD on the Pāḷi Nīti literature.—have studied and searched for parallels, and these are listed in Bechert and Braun’s edition of four of these texts.

More recently Ujjwal Kumar, who is a great scholar of this literature, has kindly pointed out a number of extra parallels, which I have included in my text. Although it is not impossible that some more parallels will be identified in the future, it is hardly likely to make much difference to the statistics presented below.

So that still leaves an astonishing 179 verses (over 40%) which have no known parallel prior to the Dhammanīti itself. Here is a list of the verses:

1, 2–3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14–15, 17, 19, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 83, 85, 89, 95, 96, 99, 107–108, 112, 113, 114, 117, 122, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 144, 146, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158–159, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 175, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 198, 199, 210, 219, 223, 224, 225, 228, 229, 231, 234–235, 238, 239, 243, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 268, 272–273, 282, 284, 285, 287, 325, 326, 327, 328, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 336, 337–338, 340, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 353, 357, 359, 365, 367, 369, 372, 376, 378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392–393, 394, 395, 396, 398, 399, 400, 403–404, 414.

And if we compare the numbers:

Author: 179 verses
Pāḷi Wisdom: 122 verses
Sanskrit Wisdom: 113 verses

We can see that the main contributor to this collection was the author/translator/collector himself.

There is no satisfactory answer as to who the author of this collection was, as he never named himself in the text—and is not noted elsewhere—but it seems to me, that if this is the earliest collection of Nīti texts in Myanmar, as Bechert and Braun believed, then he was a person a considerable talent.

We have already mentioned the versification of a prose passage mentioned above (Dhn 6). We could also mention the following clever verse:

Dhn 9

Sammā upaparikkhitvā akkharesu padesu ca,
coraghāto sisso siyā, garu coraṭṭakārako.

Having properly investigated the syllables and words, the pupil should become a slayer of the thief, while the teacher opposes the thief.

Where the “thief” is evidently ignorance, but it is implied in a way that requires the reader/listener to think it through to understand properly who should be slain.

He was also able to handle complex classical metres, like this verse in Pahāsinī, which also employs an analogy.

Dhn 349

Sādhuttaṁ sujanasamāgamā khalānaṁ,
sādhūnaṁ na khalasamāgamā khalattaṁ—
āmodaṁ kusumabhavaṁ dadhāti bhūmi,
bhūgandhaṁ na ca kusumāni dhārayanti.

For the malicious goodness comes from association with good people, maliciousness comes from association with the malicious, not with the good—the earth holds the fragrance of flowers, but flowers do not carry the scent of the earth.

Previous studies have been dismissive of the anonymous author, but it is clear from the way he was able to adapt Sanskrit—and sometimes Pāḷi—verses, and provide other materials not known in either tradition, that he was more than just a collector-translator, and was one who actively shaped his material and composed new material to get his point across.

Analysis and Summary

Structure

All manuscript and printed witnesses consulted by Bechert agree in presenting the text with an initial mātikā outlining thematic chapters and with headings placed at the beginning of each section, rather than end-titles. This paratextual architecture is shared with other nīti works such as the Lokanīti and the Mahārahanīti and contrasts with canonical and early post-canonical Pāli literature, which typically employs end-titles and lack navigational tables of contents.

Sanskrit nīti literature overwhelmingly uses head-structured textual architecture (chapter divisions, adhyāyas, mātikās, sūtra numbering, etc.), so the Pāli nīti genre is structurally Sanskritic, even though it is linguistically Pāli.

The original text is divided into 24 chapters, to which I have divided off two more sections, the Proem, containing the Invocation and Table of Contents, and the Colophon, which encourages the copying of the text.

The 24 chapters and two sections vary in length considerably as is shown in this table.

Ten of the chapters have verses in single digits; eight are between 10 and 20 verses; and eight are above 20 verses in length.

Largest to Smallest Chapters

Note that the whole of chapter 22 is drawn from the Rājavasati (the King’s Residence) section of Vidhurapaṇḍitajātaka (Ja 545, PTS) with a few omissions and summaries.

The Chapters

The text proper begins with the Ācariya, or Teacher, but unexpectedly focuses on what the pupil’s relationship should be to such a person, rather than on the qualities of a good teacher himself.

The second chapter concerns Sippa (Skt. śilpa), which has various connotations, including knowledge, craft, art and so on. It also starts with a mātika, in this case listing the traditional recognised branches of knowledge. It then primarily focuses on encouraging diligence in the pupil and not being foolish, or wasting one’s opportunity, as knowledge is what distinguishes humans from animals, and having a craft enables self-reliance.

The third chapter is entitled Paññā, Wisdom, but it really concerns the one who embodies that quality, the wise person, and how he can be recognised, and the qualities he pursues or avoids. Here the wise one, the Paṇḍita, is extolled, and this might have been a better title for the chapter. He is also identified as steadfast (dhīra), good (santa) and intelligent (budha).

The fourth chapter deals with Learning, but by showing that the one who remains unlearned is like a barbarian or an animal. The next chapter concerns right and wrong Speech, and how it should be employed, remembering that even a few words well-placed may have more effect than a lot of words used indiscriminately.

The fifth chapter on Wealth first shows what constitues true wealth, i.e. virtuous qualities. But it also shows how important actual material wealth is, as this ensures one’s independence, friendship and standing with others.

The following chapter is concerned with living in a good Country, where the virtuous and learned are respected, and where fools and villains are not in charge. If this is not the case, one should abandon the country for a better one.

The chapter on Dependence recognises that we are all in sets of relationships with others, and therefore we must be careful about who we associate with. A common theme throughout this work is that association with the bad will destroy us, and association with the good will raise us up.

This theme is continued in the next three chapters on Friends, Bad and Good People. We must be able to clearly understand these types, and not be fooled in our dealings with others, so that we make progress ethically and secure our futures, which includes in Buddhism, our future lives in saṁsāra. This is followed by a short chapter on the various Strengths that people and animals have.

The chapter on Women (Itthī) deserves a special mention because it evidently reflects the thoughts of a patriarchal society, and the suspicions and fears that men have about women. We should keep this in mind when reading, and as I stress in the annotation, we can understand that the text is reflecting its own milieu, and we can read it without necessarily universalising as the text suggests.

We should also note that the chapter speaks very well about women in many of the verses, and when virtuous, energetic and diplomatic she is seen as having a true and necessary role in society.

The next three chapters deal with particular roles in life, as a Child, a Slave and a Householder. The child it is emphasised needs to be diciplined, so he will in later life be able to support the elderly; the slave, a chapter with only two verses, discusses typology; whereas the Householder should be careful about the company he keeps, the wealth he has gathered and who he mixes with.

The next three chapters on what should be Done or Not Done by the Wise, and What Should Be Known or understood are fairly self-explanatory from their titles.

The following two chapters deal with how a King and a Courtier should behave in regard to each other and in regard to the populace they rule over. A whole treatise was given over to the behaviour of Kings and leaders (the Rājanīti) elsewhere, as it was such an important subject, and these are amongst the longer chapters here.

The last two chapters are really Miscellaneous chapters, giving advice that doesn’t fit in well under the other headings, the first of these chapters is organised according to numerical categories: Pairs, triads, etc.

I have separated off a Colophon from this last chapter, as it really deals with the preservation of texts, especially this one, and the benefits and results of passing the Dhamma to our own and future generations. There are a few miscellaneous verses in this section also, but mainly it is concerned with encouraging the transmission of the Dhamma.

Verse 390 emphasises that: Books and so on are the field, writing is the yoke and plough, having made letters the seed, through this conduct one may become a wise person, i.e. copying this work is first of all beneficial for the scribe.

The Metres of Dhammanīti

The Dhammanīti has 414 verses, and 889 lines of verse. I count Siloka lines by the pādayuga, but Tuṭṭhubha and the other metres as having four lines. The vast majority are in Siloka metre, which account for 399 of the verses and 821 of the lines. Most of these are comprised of a pair of pādayugas, though 22 verses have 3 pādayugas. Vss. 3, 16, 23, 50, 76, 111, 134, 149, 157, 168, 171, 228, 229, 266, 268, 284, 301, 302, 312, 317, 333, 334.

Of the variations, by far the most are the pathyā (regular) form of the Siloka, comprising 640 lines. The mavipulā is next with 49 lines. In classical times the mavipulā normally has a word break after the 5th syllable, but 20 of the verses in this collection ignore that, and so it seems it wasn’t important to the collector-translator.

Next in number is the savipulā, which is not at all common in classical times, but here amounts to 41 of the lines. Javipulā, or Anuṭṭhubha, accounts for 29 lines, which again is a very high number for the classical Siloka, which usually avoided this variation. The unusual variations are probably accounted for by the difficulty of accommodating translations from Sanskrit.

The rest of the variations are as follows: bhavipulā, 18; navipulā, 13; ravipulā, 13; and tavipulā, 10 lines. Further to this 9 lines are hypermetric.

Apart from the Siloka, the Tuṭṭhubha has 11 verses (44 lines), of which 10 lines are irregular. Verse 109 is perhaps a Jagatī verse, but if so, it is irregular. There is one verse each in the Vasantatilakā and Pahāsinī metres. Eight lines remain unidentified, they are found at vss. 253 and 400.

This Edition

The Text

In 1974 Heinz Bechert and Heinz Braun edited a critical edition of four Nīti texts—Dhammanīti, Lokanīti, Mahārahanīti and Rājanīti—from a large collection of manuscripts and printed editions they had managed to assemble over many years, and the work was published by the Pali Text Society (PTS) as Pāli Nīti Texts of Burma. This is the text that is the basis of my translation, though I have occasionally made changes to the text, which are noted as they appear.

Most numerous are the parallels from the Pāḷi texts, particularly those included in other Nīti collections, including 199 that are found in the Mahārahanīti (Mhn), 106 in the Lokanīti (Ln) and three from the Rājanīti. Note that five verses are found in more than one place in Dhn itself: 31 = 388; 51 = 175; 72 = 306; 132 = 147; 184 = 316.

122 of the verses are found in other, mainly canonical, Pāḷi texts, including 78 from the Jātaka collection, 8 each from the Dhammapada and Aṅguttaranikāya; six from the Theragāthā; 4 each from Suttanipāta and Itivuttaka, one from the Parivāra, and two from the medieval Subhodhālaṅkāra. One verse is based on the Dīghanikāya.

When these differ they are either noted in the annotations, or, if the difference is substantial, printed and translated below the Dhammanīti verse. If they are marked with an equals sign (=) it means they agree with the text as printed, or have only very minor differences.

In their notes Bechert and Braun also listed and printed the Sanskrit parallels as known to them, and these form the basis for my listing of the parallels in this work of which I count 113 from a wide range of texts.

Note that this is a smaller number of parallels than those from the Pāḷi canon, so that we cannot really say that the Dhammanīti is a translation of Sanskrit subhāṣita, it is rather inspired by that tradition, and then collects or adapts those verses which could be usefully included.

In this edition the Sanskrit parallels are printed underneath the Dhn verse they are parallel to and I have translated them when they differ in meaning. These usually have some variation in the readings, and are marked ≈ when there are significant differences; where they agree entirely, except in language, they are marked with an equals sign (=).

Here is a list of the Sanskrit parallels for easy reference, note in the case of Cāṇakya, Vyāsa, Hitopadeśa and Pañcatantra these are found in various books, editions of which are identified as they appear in the text (see the Bibliography):

The Presentation

Many of the verses have to be taken in pairs to make sense of them, these are 2–3, 14–15, 102–103, 173–174, 192–193, 234–235, 272–273, 274–275, 276–277, 278–279, 337–338, 392–393, 403–404. This is an evolution from the canonical Pāḷi texts which were normally written in pādayugas.

In this text, outside of the canonical material, the pādayuga is not normally enough and, generally speaking, the four-line verse has to be read as a whole for it to make good sense. For this reason I have printed the whole verse first, and then a translation of the verse on a following line, rather than attempting to translate it pādayuga by pādayuga as I have normally done elsewhere.

The presentation here is organised in this way: first comes the Pāḷi verse(s), which is followed by the translation. This is then commented on to explicate and draw out the meaning, and explain difficult points.

I regret to say that I do not know Burmese, and so was unable to benefit from the nissayas to the text. For this reason I decided to write my own commentary, which expands upon the often elliptic verses, and enabled me to explain the meaning, without additions to the translation, keeping in mind the general reader, who can benefit from the advice.

If there are Pāḷi parallels which differ significantly these follow underneath, along with a translation; on the other hand if there is a Sanskrit parallel it is always printed, and it is translated if it differs from the Dhammanīti verse.

This gives a structure, which is colour-coded for easier identification of the main texts and its parallels:

Text

Translation

Commentary

(Pali Parallel)

(Translation)

(Sanskrit Parallel)

(Translation)

The text and translation are also annotated to discuss points of difficulty and of interest, and sometimes to explain my choice of translation.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful indeed to the Pali Text Society who gave permission to reproduce Bechert and Braun’s text here. This has enabled me to work with a well-established and trusted edition of the text and its parallels, which was edited by two of the greatest scholars of this tradition.

This translation was discussed in detail with chat.deepseek.ai, and is all the better for it (accessed from Dec. 2025–Mar. 2026). This often consisted, in the case of difficult verses, of long sessions reviewing the translation over and over again, until we could make satisfactory sense of it. Deepseek also generated the initial commentary, which was then largely rewritten to reflect my own ideas.

I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Ujjwal Kumar, Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Calcutta, who himself has made many studies of this genre in English and Hindi, as well as texts in Devanāgarī and translations into Hindi of the Nīti texts. He it was who first encouraged me to undertake this translation, and then was kind enough to review the work for me. He also found the parallels to verses 4, 5, 6, 196 and 197.

On difficult points I consulted James Gray’s 1886 translation, which was guided by the nissaya. His translation often says much more than the text does, and that sometimes helped me to understand the text better, but I do not always follow his translation.

Ānandajoti Bhikkhu
March 2026